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\markright{{\it EAGLES Morphosyntactic Phenomena:\/ 
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\title{Synopsis and Comparison of Morphosyntactic Phenomena\\
Encoded in Lexicons and Corpora.\\
A Common Proposal and Applications to European Languages\\
-------------------------\\
Draft version}

\author{Monica Monachini and Nicoletta Calzolari (Coords.)\\
Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale - ILC - Pisa\\
\\
\\
Other Contributors:\\
Anna Braasch and Ole Norling-Christensen (DA)\\
Tilly Dutilh-Ruitenberg (DU)\\
Geoffrey Leech and Andrew Wilson (EN)\\
Jean-Marc Lang\'{e}, and Jean Veronis, Liliane Khouri and
Christine Meunier (FR)\\
Anne Schiller (GE)\\
Penny Labropoulou and Maria Gavrilidou (GR)\\
Paula Guerreiro  (PO)\\
Nuria Bel and Marta Villegas (SP)\\
\\
\\
Commentators:\\
Susan Armstrong, Gerardo Arrarte, F. Bacelar de Nascimento\\
K.A.C. Depuydt, Pieter de Haan, Ramia Hatzidaki,\\
Ulrich Heid, Dirk Heylen, Philip King,\\
Lothar Lemnitzer, Wolfgang Paprottee, Helena Soares,\\
Petra Steiner, Simone Teufel, Annie Zaenen}
\date{October 1994}
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\section{Introduction}


The objective of the present document is to propose a common core
set of morphosyntactic distinctions
to be encoded in lexicons and in corpora of the European
languages\footnote{The two EAGLES
subgroups working on Morphosyntax in Corpora and in Lexicons agreed
on the approach towards morphosyntactcic specifications presented in
this document at the Joint Meeting of July
9th and 10th in Pisa. The following members took part in the meeting:
Arrarte, Calzolari, Hellwig, Guerreiro, Leech, Monachini, Paprottee,
Schiller, Zaenen.}.\\

A bottom-up approach, looking at existing practices in the main
lexical and textual projects world-wide (both in lexical specifications
and in corpus tagsets) has been adopted.\\
The procedure followed was:\\
-- to survey the main encoding practices for morphosyntactic description
in lexicons and in corpora with the aim of deriving a consensus from
their comparison;\\
-- to work with close cooperation between the
specialists both in linguistic
annotation of text corpora and morphosyntactic description in
computational lexicons, with the aim of working out a compatible set
of distinctions;\\
-- to carry out a first testing of the proposal, by applying it concretely
to the European languages.\\

This allowed us to
highlight the areas of common ground
and some aspects of discrepancy between the different systems for
classifying morphosyntactic phenomena, and to
provide a first common nucleus of morphosyntactic distinctions.
These are proposed in a feature-based notation, in the form of
attribute and value pairs.\\

After testing with respect to
all EC languages,
the possibility of elaborating
common consensual and explicit
guidelines for morphosyntactic encoding in lexica
and corpora is foreseen.\\


\subsection{The Survey and Proposal Phase}

The morphosyntactic descriptions and encoding
schemes involved in the comparison are the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item on the side of lexica:
\begin{enumerate}
\item the MULTILEX model,
- 1st row in the tables - as presented in the
the Final Report on Morphology
(MULTILEX 1993),
\item the GENELEX model - 2nd row in the tables -
for the encoding of the morphological and syntactic
levels in a lexicon,
originally studied for French (GENELEX Apr.1993, GENELEX Sept.1993),
\item the AlethDic application of the GENELEX model
(GSI-Erli 1993) - 3rd row in
the tables;
\end{enumerate}
\item
on the side of corpora:
\begin{enumerate}
\item the proposal of a consensual nucleus of
morphosyntactic information encoded by the most common existing
tagging practices
- 4th row in the tables -
presented in the framework of the NERC Project (Monachini and Oestling
1992a and 1992b),
and
\item the scheme proposed by
Leech and Wilson -
5th row in the tables - as an outcome of a
joint meeting of the Lexicon and Corpus Groups in Pisa (Leech and
Wilson 1993).
\\
Note that this proposal is a step foreward with respect to that of NERC
since, besides corpora,
it also takes into account
the first requirements for lexica which emerged from
the discussion at the joint meeting in Pisa.
\end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}

Additionally, it should be noted that the NERC proposal also took into account
the list of common morphological features proposed within the TEI by the
Linguistic Analysis Committee (TEI AI1W2 1991).\\

The comparison is displayed, category by category, by means of
synoptical tables containing the relevant features,
followed by some explanatory notes and comments.\\

\subsubsection{Morphosyntactic categories: description of the tables}

The tables representing a category are structured as follows:
\begin{itemize}
\item the 1st vertical column on the left contains the encoding systems
under analysis;
\item the top horizontal row displays the morphosyntactic category
considered (first item on the left),
and the relevant morphosyntactic
information, presented as attribute names;
\item each column has the name of an attribute and lists the relevant
values that are used within each system. If the cell is left empty,
this means that the system does not mark the information;
\item the bottom box (a set of rows named EAG...)
contains the features and
values proposed within EAGLES
for the category, resulting from the present comparison.
The features are articulated on different levels, corresponding to
different degrees of ``obligatoriness".
As already pointed out (see Leech 1992, Monachini and Oestling 1992b,
Leech and Wilson
1993b), different levels of
constraints can be isolated in the morphosyntactic encoding of
a category and, therefore,
different levels of standardization can be suggested:
\begin{itemize}
\item Level 0 (L0) contains only
the category (or PoS), presented in the draft by Leech and Wilson (1993b)
as the only ``obligatory features";
\item Level 1 (L1) presents
the grammatical features, such as Gender, Number, Person, etc.,
which are usually encoded in lexica and corpora: these are considered
as ``recommended features" (in Leech and Wilson
defined as ``optional") constituting the ``minimal common core set of
features" for the PoS;
\item Leech and Wilson
``Special Extensions" are presented here on two levels;
they are in fact exemplary of current practices from two different
points of view:
\begin{itemize}
\item Level 2a (L2a) contains information
which is pertinent to all or many languages and
is considered useful and easy to standardize,
but is either not yet usually encoded by current practices
or not purely morphosyntactic
(e.g. countability for nouns):
these are to be considered as ``optional features".
As a rule of thumb, a value is put here if it is relevant to more
than three languages.
\item Level 2b (L2b) presents ``language-specific features", not
belonging to the set of recognized common features. The values presented
in this row are labelled with the initials of the language they are
pertinent to.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}

The table below shows the structure of the synoptical tables and
the multi-layered structure of the present
EAGLES proposal:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||r||}
\hline \hline
{\bf PoS} & attributes\\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX  &      \\
\hline
GENELEX &        \\
\hline
AlethDic &     \\
\hline
NERC &         \\
\hline
EAGLeech&     \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0&obligatory : PoS\\
\hline
EAG-L1&recommended : minimal common core set of features\\
\hline
EAG-L2a&optional: info common to languages,\\
         &either not usually encoded\\
         &or not purely morphosyntactic\\
\hline
EAG-L2b&language-specific: language-specific info\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
Having a multi-layered or hierarchical structure,
instead of a flat one, gives more flexibility to the proposal
and allows the user to choose the most appropriate level of encoding
(which may vary, e.g. according to different applications).
The idea is that, going from Level 0 to Level 2
the amount of information
is increased and more granularity is achieved. The use of all three levels
allows the representation of more information, whereas a description at Level 1 is a
subset of a description resulting from the application of all three levels.
Moreover,
it provides an easy framework for extensions and updating, as well as
permitting a comparison of
different schemes (at the lowest common level).\\



\subsection{Application of the Proposal to the European languages}

For each category, an application of the common proposal
(which corresponds, as far as possible,
to the union of the analysed schemes)
to some European languages has been carried out.\\
Examples from the specific language are given for each attribute value,
and, when necessary, criteria for the application of the feature.
This
proposal may have to be revised, when more applications have been performed
and feedback received, in a cyclical
process.

\subsubsection{Description of the Tables}

In the sections ``Application to European languages",
attributes and values -- presented in the preceding
tables as the EAGLES proposal for each category --
are tested on real corpora and lexica in a number of European languages.
The schema applied to specific European languages is, therefore,
the multi-layered/EAGLES proposal, which
copes not only with the
requirements for corpora but also with the requirements for lexica.\\

In these sections,
each morphosyntactic feature pertinent to a category in a specific
language is represented
in the form of a table:
the attribute name is presented in bold characters,
the values are listed in italics and
examples are provided, together with the information on the
corresponding tag in a language-specific lexicon encoding scheme
or corpus tagset
(if available).

\begin{itemize}
\item If a language does not have some values for a given
attribute, the cell of the example (and of the tag) is left empty.
\item If the attribute has, in a particular
language, more values than in the
proposed common system, the extra-value is inserted in
the second part of the  table (with the note {\it l-spec} to the left).
\item If, in a particular language, some
features are not at all applicable, this will be dealt with
in the ``Comments"
section; the feature will not be represented as a table.
\end{itemize}

We give here an example of such a table, i.e. the feature ``Number" for
Nouns in the Italian section:

\vspace{15mm}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& (il) libro    & S/m{\bf s}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & (i) libri      & S/m{\bf p}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it invariant}&(la/le) attivita'& S/f{\bf n}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}
\subsubsection{Application to Italian}

The application to Italian has been carried out by
M. Monachini and N. Calzolari (Monachini and Calzolari 1994).\\

When speaking of the Italian lexicon, we refer here to the
Italian Machine Dictionary - DMI (Calzolari et al. 1983, Monachini
1992);
when speaking of the Italian Corpus, we refer to the Italian Reference
Corpus (Bindi et al. 1991). The column ``It.tag" in the tables displays
the actual tag used in the Italian Dictionary and in the
Corpus tagset to represent the attribute and the value.\\

\subsubsection{Application to German}

Sections on German have been written by A. Schiller (Schiller 1993).\\

For the application to German we will refer to the tagset developed
in the project TC%
\footnote{TC = {\bf T}ext{\bf c}orpora und Erschlie{\ss}ungswerkzeuge}
at the IMS Stuttgart (hereafter called the ``IMS-Tagset'') in
collaboration with the
project ELWIS%
\footnote{ELWIS = korpusunterst\"utzte {\bf E}ntwicklung {\bf l}exikalischer
{\bf Wis}sensbasen f\"ur die Computerlinguistik.}
at the University of T\"ubingen.
\subsubsection{Application to English}
Sections on English have been contributed by G. Leech and A. Wilson
(Leech and Wilson 1994b).\\

The English tagset suggested here does not follow, except in a very broad
sense, the practices now established in the tagging of English corpora.
There
are existing tagging systems - for example, the C5 and C7
tagsets employed for
the British National Corpus - which might have been used as a model.
However,
the difficulty is that the morphosyntax of English is
exceptionally simple,
and many of the distinctions often represented in English tagsets are not
strictly morphosyntactic: for example, the distinction between
attributive and
predicative adjectives.
On the other hand, it is usual practice to assign to
the base form of the English verb just one tag,
or at most two, rather than
to represent all the values of number, tense, person,
and mood which would be
required by most direct adherence to the EAGLES guidelines.
In practice,
therefore, the English tagset presented
here is something of a compromise
solution which will enable English
morphosyntactic information to be integrated in the document.


\subsubsection{Application to Dutch}
The application to Dutch has been carried out by T. Dutilh Ruitenberg
(Dutilh Ruitenberg 1994)\footnote{Special
thanks are due to J. v.d. Voort v.d. Kleij for
substantial
comments.}.\\

Most of the tags described in the sections devoted to Dutch application
are selected from two different CELEX lexical
databases: some of them are taken from the Syntactical information columns of
the
Lemmas Lexicon and some from the Inflectional information columns of the
Wordforms
Lexicon. To understand the term column it is necessary to understand that the databases consist
 of
rows divided into dozens of columns, each column containing a value tag. Each row
contains in its columns the information belonging to one Lemma (Lemmas lexicon)
 or
to one word form (Wordforms Lexicon). The Syntactical information in the Lemmas
lexicon is represented by Yes/No tags or by abbreviated name tags.
As well as such Yes/No tags, the Wordforms lexicon presents a
different kind of tags, called {\it Flection Type\/} tags. These are single or
composed tags, each
element representing one aspect of the inflected wordform.\\
\\
The examples given in the CELEX tables below are deliberately taken from the
{\it DUTCH LINGUISTIC GUIDE\/} (Burnage
1990). If there were no examples the author
made them up herself. This is
always
marked.\\
\\
The CELEX system allows the attribution to one word form of double or triple
 tags,
separated by slashes, such as: `geo./pers.' and `hebben/zijn' and
 `intrans./trans./wederk.'.\\
\\
It should be noted that there are two representations of each syntactic tag in
 the
Lemmas lexicon: a numeric one and an alphanumeric one. In the tables below you
 will
only find the alphanumeric tags.\\
\\
Some categories are not present in the CELEX databases mentioned above. To fill
this
gap we present here
ten `Proposals for Dutch', either based on the German Tables, or
on the
MULTILEX table, and always based on Dutch traditional grammar. \\
\\
There is another CELEX database, containing still more detailed information on
subcategorization and subclassification of a syntactic as well as a semantic
nature.
This database is not yet fully described, but the author
did use this source for some
tables in the application.\\

The CELEX tags are in the Dutch language, whereas the tags in the ten
`Proposals'
are Latin-derived or English. \\

For Dutch, a report has also
been contributed by Dirk Heylen (Heylen 1994)
from Utrecht. In his document Heylen
makes useful comments mainly concerning the application
to Dutch, but some general considerations and
questions are raised as well.
(This feedback is taken into account and
incorporated in the Dutch section by the
Dutch correspondent.)\\

\subsubsection{Application to Spanish}

Sections on Spanish have been written by
N. Bel and M. Villegas (Bel and Villegas 1993).\\


When speaking of the Spanish dictionary we refer to the Spanish EUROTRA
dictionary.
The Spanish tagging is that used in Eurotra's dictionaries.

\subsubsection{Application to French}

The EAGLES proposal has been analysed
from a corpus point of view by
Jean-Marc Lang\'{e} (Lang\'{e}
1994) of IBM France and its applicability
to a French Lexicon has been tested by the Veronis group of CNRS
(Veronis
et al. 1994a and 1994b). Their reports
also constitute a first
proposal for encoding a lexicon to be used as a basis for the
specific application of corpus tagging within the MULTEXT project.


The sections on corpora describe the
application of the EAGLES proposed model to a French corpus, taking as a
reference point the
tagset developed and used at IBM
France Scientific Center, in particular by the speech group. For ease of
use, this tagset will be referred to as the {\it IBMF tagset}.

Despite this focus on a particular tagset, general problems
will also be mentioned, even when they do not lead to any
discussion of the French language
(for example, everybody will agree that nouns do not bear case information
in French).

Tagsets such as the IBMF tagset have a certain bias since they are used
for the very specific purpose of predicting the exact part-of-speech
of words in a corpus; in other words, they are used for
{\it modelling} the language at the morphological level, whereas a lexical
tagset would be developed for {\it describing} the language.
For example, this tagset doesn't cover the full set of features for verbs
(mood, tense, etc.), for two reasons:

\begin{itemize}
\item the graphic form of the verb will help --if necessary--
determine the ``missing" features
\item the addition of tags with these specific features would not improve
the language model's essential capability: that of correctly predicting
other tags.
\end{itemize}

For similar reasons, several corpus-oriented tagsets for the same language
might differ considerably, depending on the goal pursued
(e.g. speech recognition, terminology identification, etc.) or on
the type of language modelling used (e.g. stochastic
vs. rule-based models, etc.).

So the reader should be careful and consider this contribution
for French only as one possible
application, not as an attempt to describe a universal solution.\\

The features are  listed in the following order:\\
1) the different EAGLES attributes/values applicable to the IBMF
tagset,\\
2) then the EAGLES features that are NOT applicable to the tagset
or to French,\\
3) finally the specific items for which there is
no attribute/value in EAGLES
(those which are not
{\it language-specific} but rather {\it tagset-specific}
and therefore do not need a new EAGLES attribute).\\

When only a part of the tag name is relevant to the specific
attribute-value pair considered,
this part will be put in bold font
in the Tag column
(e.g. in tag SUBSFS,
{\bf SUBS}FS applies to substantive,
SUBS{\bf F}S to feminine
and SUBSF{\bf S} to singular).\\

\subsubsection{Application to Danish}

The application to Danish has been contributed by Anna Braasch
of CST, Copenhagen (Braasch
1994); the description of the Danish Word Bank has been contributed by
Ole Norling-Christensen.\\

In all the tables in the Danish sections
the value names are used in accordance with the
Eurotra Dictionary Encoding Manual for Danish (EDEMD) and/or with the
appropriate namings used in traditional dictionaries. The names are also
harmonised with the tagset planned for the corpus tagging tool for
Danish. However, the authors
would like to update their input before the editing of
the final version of the present document.
The reason why they need this
possibility is that a project recently begun in Denmark is aiming at the
standardisation of lexical data for encoding, storage and exchange
purposes. A number of relevant institutions are involved in this
project, the outcome of which will be a standard proposal (with delivery
planned approximately for the end of 1995.)\\


{\bf General remarks:}\\

A tag within a table printed in {\bf bold face} as the last part of a tag
combination is the value relevant to that particular attribute.


The most frequent value for an attribute is often left unmarked by taggers, i.e.
 it
is regarded as the default value. For instance, the most common value of
the attribute Case occurring in a corpus is the value `ngen' (non-genitive),
 thus
there no tag will be inserted for non-genitive (nominative and
oblique) cases. Similarly, nouns of type `common' will receive only the tag 'sb'
(substantive) and no tag for the Type.\\



The tags used in the morphosyntactic descriptions and tables
mainly follow the proposal for English, because
Danish is closely related to the English language and also the proposed
annotation tags seem to be well-suited to the description of the features of Danish
as well.\\

The remarks on Danish are
also partly based on a description of The Danish Dictionary
project that comprises high-level corpus work and corpus-based dictionary work
according to advanced lexicographical principles and methods.\\


{\bf Corpus annotation}\\

A general language corpus of 40 million
words compiled by The Danish Dictionary is
in the process of being tagged with part of speech (word class) and
word form codes for each word.\\

The degree of annotation granularity is based on the need for the disambiguation of
homographs and the proper recognition of lemmas, although the tool used
does not
support the handling of lexical or morphosyntactic ambiguities.

A coherency and consistency between lexical specifications given in the Word
Bank and the corpus tagset is ensured by using interrelated tagsets.\\


{\bf Lexicon annotation}\\

The Word Bank, that is the lexical database of The Danish Dictionary, contains
morphosyntactic information on Danish compiled from the official Spelling
Dictionary and from two major bilingual dictionaries, with necessary
corrections, extensions, etc.\\

{\bf Corpus and Lexicon Morphosyntax for Danish}\\


During its first 30 months the Danish Dictionary project has designed and built
a text corpus of 40 million tokens, and a lexical database, the Word Bank, of
340,000 entries (lemmas).\\

The corpus consists of more than 40,000 samples of a wide variety of text types,
written as well as spoken, from the last ten years. Each individual sample is
tagged with information on provenence and text properties; no linguistic
tagging of the text proper has yet been made.\\

The Word Bank integrates the information on Danish that is found in the official
Spelling Dictionary, two major bilingual dictionaries (Danish-English and
-French), and in the excerpts collected since 1955 by the Board of the Danish
Language. By a boot-strapping procedure, starting from the Spelling Dictionary,
and with considerable manual intervention, all of the 340,000 entries have been
assigned a PoS and, when relevant, inflectional information according to the
Danish norm (which permits quite a number of variants).\\


{\bf Morphosyntactic information in the Word Bank}\\

The following parts of speech are distinguished:
adj, adv, art(icle), fork(ortelse [ abbreviation), konj (conjunction), lydo(ord
[ onomatopoeia), pron, prep(osition), prop(rium), sb, talo(rd [ numeral),
ud(rebs)o(rd [ interjection), vb.

Inflectional information is provided for adj, adv (comparison), pron, prop,
sb, and vb, in a way that makes it possible to generate the entire
set of inflectional forms. For each of 897 different paradigms the
inflectional information is
supplied as a string like the following:
\begin{verbatim}
"+"; "+s"; "+en"; "+ens"; "od"dder"; "od"dders";
"od"dderne"; "od"ddernes"; "+e" "+s".
\end{verbatim}

This represents the inflection of
{\it
fod ``foot": fod; fods; foden; fodens; fodder;
fodders; fodderne; foddernes; fode fods}.\\

For a given PoS there are a fixed number of positions, separated by semicolons;
in this case (a noun) there are nine positions, each representing a distinct
combination of features. If inflectional variants are allowed, there will be
two or more morphemes in one or more of the positions (like the last position
of the example). If a form is impossible / never instantiated, the position is
empty (no quoted string).\\

{\bf Nouns (sb)}\\
9 different positions are distinguished. The dichotomies sg/pl,
def(inite)/indef(inite), and gen(itive)/non(-gen), cause eight of them:\\
sg-indef-non; sg-indef-gen; sg-def-non; sg-def-gen;
pl-indef-non; pl-indef-gen; pl-def-non; pl-def-gen.\\
The ninth position is intended for fossilized forms, if any, typically found in
frozen prepositional phrases like {\it til fods}
``on foot", {\it (hjolpe ham) po fode}
``(set him) on his feet".\\

{\bf Proper names (prop)}\\
Neither number nor definiteness apply, and only two positions are
distinguished:
sg-indef-non; sg-indef-gen.\\

{\bf Verbs (vb)}\\
Ten different positions:\\
infinitive; pres-active; pres-pass; past-active; past-pass; pres.ptc; pf.ptc.
(neuter); pf.ptc., common gender; pf.ptc. plural/definite; imperative.\\
Example, {\it vinde} ``win":\\
{\it vinde; vinder; vindes; vandt; vandtes; vindende; vundet;
vunden; vundne; vind!}\\

{\bf Adjectives (adj)}\\
Twelve positions. An adjective must agree with the number, definiteness and
gender of the noun; there are two genders: neu(ter) and com(mon gender). There
is no concord of case; the genitive forms listed are only for adjectives used
substantively. Many adj.s have comp(arative) and sup(erlative):\\
sg-com-indef-non; sg-com-indef-gen; sg-neu-indef-non; adverbial form;
pl/def-non; pl/def-gen; comp-non; comp-gen; sup-indef; sup-pl/def-non;
sup-pl/def-gen.

Example, {\it rigtig} ``right":\\
{\it rigtig; rigtigs; rigtigt; rigtig rigtigt; rigtige;
rigtiges; rigtigere;
rigtigeres; rigtigst; rigtigste; rigtigstes.}\\

{\bf Adverbs}\\
This traditional category (or rather: garbage bin) is likely to be
subcategorized according to function. As the Word Bank information is to be
used for corpus tagging / disambiguation, a major criterion will be the
different surface syntactic behaviour of the adverbs. For the moment, three
positions are set
aside for adverbs: positive, comparative and superlative. However, comparison
is only registered for three adverbs.\\

{\bf Pronouns}\\
For words in this category, up to five different inflexional forms have been
registered. However, like the adverbs, the entire set of pronominal forms will
have to be analysed and recategorized in a manner that makes it suitable for
corpus analysis.\\

{\bf Morphosyntactic information in the Corpus}\\

As stated above, preparations are underway for explicit linguistic tagging of
the corpus. The tool (CorpuszBench, produced by TEXTware A/S)
that is used by the editors for on-line corpus exploration, can handle
SGML-tagged words with attributes for word-class and word-form, for example:
\begin{verbatim}
<W WC{sb WF{pl>words</W>
\end{verbatim}
The handling of ambiguous word classes or word forms is not supported by this tool,
which means that for the daily dictionary work it is necessary to concentrate on
disambiguating word classes and only occasionally use word form tagging.

\subsubsection{Application to Greek}

The application to Greek has been carried out by P. Labropoulou and
M. Gavrilidou, based on (Aglamissis et al. 1994).\\

The Greek Morphological Lexicon described in this report is the ILSP
Morphological Lexicon, which is used for the purpose of morphologically
annotating the Greek Reference Corpus. \\

The entries of the lexicon are classified on the basis of the
grammatical
category and the information included is:\\

- for inflected forms: stem, code number of inflectional paradigm,
location of
stress (number of stressed syllable), optional diaeresis,\\

- for uninflected forms: word form, number of stressed syllable.\\

From the above classification, information on the morphological
features of
each entry is derivable from the inflectional classes (e.g. gender,
number and
case for nouns). Further types of information depending on the
grammatical
category are explicitly coded for each entry.  More details on these
information types
are presented in each section of each category.\\

The columns presenting the tags in the tables show both
the tag that
is generated for each word form of the lexicon by a special mechanism,
and the
tag that would accompany this word if found in a text.\\

Greek examples are transcribed in the Latin alphabet, using the system
adopted
for Eurotra. This system of transcription is based on the visual
similarity of
the graphemes used by the Greek language. The correspondences of this
transcription with the IPA are as follows:\\

a     a\\
v     v\\
gh    =9A or j\\
dh    =9B\\
e     e\\
z     z\\
y     i\\
th    =9F\\
i     i\\
k     k or c\\
l     l\\
m     m\\
n     n\\
x     ks\\
o     o\\
p     p\\
r     r\\
s     s\\
t     t\\
u     i\\
f     f\\
h     x\\
ps    ps\\
w     o\\
au    av or af\\
ou    u\\
eu    ev or ef\\
ghk   g\\


\subsubsection{Application to Portuguese}

The sections on Portuguese have been written by P.Guerreiro (ILTEC)
(Guerreiro 1994).\\

She reports on a skeleton evaluation of the EAGLES proposal
with respect to the Portuguese language.
A comparative approach was adopted. As a main basis, the
specifications used in the morphological layer developed by ILTEC in the
framework of the GENELEX project
(Guerreiro (ed.), 1994),
instantiated in a demo lexicon of about
5000 entries, were taken into account and compared with those provided
by EAGLES.\\
Ongoing work on a morphological analyser for the Portuguese language was
also sometimes taken into account.\\


\subsection{Further application: the MULTEXT experience}

The main objectives  of  the MULTEXT  project  (MULTEXT  Tech.Ann.
1993) are the definition and  the  implementation  of a set of tools  for
Corpus-based  research and applications,
and   the  production  of  a   corpus  in  a
multilingual  framework.  Tools and resources will be developed on the
basis of operational standards and  in the  light  of the  conventions
which are being defined by the  major international projects   dealing
with the issue of standardization.\\

One of the MULTEXT tasks (under the responsibility of ILC-Pisa),
dealing with annotation conventions and hence strongly connected with the
work presented in this document, aims at formulating:\\
(i)  common  specifications  and a  common  notation  for  the MULTEXT
lexicon, and\\
(ii)  a  tagset  for the  MULTEXT corpus on which the tools  will run.\\

The  MULTEXT  partners  involved  in  this  task  \footnote{Istituto
di Linguistica Computazionale - Pisa,
Italy (Coord.); Laboratoire Parole et
Languge CNRS - Aix-en-Provence,
France; Fundacion Bosch Gimpera - Barcelona,
Spain; Institut Dalle
Molle pour les Etudes Semantiques et Cognitives - Geneva,
Switzerland;
Universitaet Muenster - Muenster, Germany; Siemens - Barcelona,
Spain; Stichting
Taaltechnology - Utrecht, The Netherlands.} have carefully
evaluated the proposal
which was defined  within EAGLES --  the  proposal  presented  in  the
tables of the February version of the present document -- for each PoS
at Level-1  (the level  of recommended features).
After a global evaluation of the EAGLES proposal, also taking into
account the different grammatical traditions and the different language
requirements,
they checked if the
features  suited  the description of  their respective  languages  and
added those  features and/or values  needed at the  language  specific
level.\\
All the partners have  performed the evaluation  by translating  their
existing -- or  still under development  --  lexicons into  the EAGLES
features and values,  i.e. applying the  proposal concretely to their
languages  and providing examples of all  the admitted combinations of
values  for  each  category.   In  such  a  way,  constraints  on  the
application of  the values have  emerged  (see  the application to the
French Lexicon, included in the present report).\\

The MULTEXT experience turned out to be a very important  test-bed for
the EAGLES Lexicon proposal:\\
-- a large core of lexicon specifications proved to fit the description
of all the six MULTEXT languages (Dutch, German, English, French,
Italian and Spanish);\\
-- the  cycle of testing  and  concrete application  has stressed  the
need of further specifications at the language-specific level.\\

The  essential  change affected the  class of  Pronouns,  which in  the
preceding  version  of the EAGLES  Lexicon  document  incorporated the
Determiners;  the previous
merging of the two categories (at least at L1,  with  the possibility of
splitting the two categories at a more fine-grained level)  seemed, in
the first instance, to be the
best solution to cope with  the requirements of many corpus  practices
-- that keep  the two  categories  undistinguished --  and  attempted to
reconcile lexicon specifications and corpus tagsets.\\
This  choice, however,
was rightly
felt  to  be too  corpus-oriented  and  the  MULTEXT
partners  have  expressed  their opinion in favour of having,  at  the
lexicon level, two different categories for Pronouns and Determiners.\\
Lexical descriptions should aim, indeed, at a general and fine-grained
description of the language which is independent from particular
applications,  while,  given a set of practical reasons
--  state-of-the-art tagging
techniques and computability  (see Calzolari and
Monachini, Coords., 1994) --, broader categories are
to be preferred for the tagset and many ``collapsings" of values are
to be made.\\

The requirements that  emerged from all the language specific
applications included  in the
document and from
the MULTEXT feedback,  therefore, constitute the basis of
the  lexicon specifications described in the  present version  of this
report.\\
%------------------------------------------




\subsection{Some relevant aspects for lexical specifications}


We deal in this section with a number of aspects that are
of relevance as introductory general remarks with respect
to the goal of providing a common core of lexical
specifications.\\

The issues that we want briefly to discuss concern
aspects such as the relationship between lexical
specifications and corpus tagsets, the concept of ``common category",
the objects that are described and the level of
description, the descriptive approach (general vs.
language specific) and its implications for problems like
monotonicity, redundancy, etc., the introduction of
constraints at the language-specific level, and so on.


\subsubsection{Lexical specifications vs. corpus tagsets}

The agreed decision of the two Subgroups of Morphosyntax
in the Computational Lexicons WG and of Linguistic
Annotation in the Text Corpus WG was to prepare two
separate documents for lexical specifications and for
corpus tagsets (Leech and Wilson
1994), even though the two topics are clearly
strongly interrelated. The background motivation to this
decision was essentially the view of corpus tagging as just one
of the possible applications of a Computational Lexicon,
which has to be seen in a more neutral context as an
application-independent set of lexical specifications.\\

The two subgroups have always worked in close cooperation, and much
attention was paid to the definition of compatible sets
of attributes and values. The outcome of the work has
generated two parallel documents, each focusing on the
specific areas, and with clear cross-references between
the two\footnote{The present Corpus document does not yet
reflect the last
changes included in this version of the Lexicon proposal after the
MULTEXT feedback.}.
The two documents are therefore not to be seen
as two independent sets of recommendations for almost the
same set of phenomena, but as two complementary sets of
recommendations, a more general one capable of being
directly mapped into an application oriented one.\\

This interdependence between lexicon and corpus is
a very important aspect for any future action aiming at
creating lexicons and/or tagsets to be shared and made
available to the community. Corpus tagging is in fact the
first obvious application of a Computational Lexicon and
cannot be developed on an independent basis: both the
lexicon specialists and the corpus specialists feel that it is very
important to reconcile the two views.\\

The separation betwen the lexical specification area and the tagset
can be reflected at the level of terminology:\\
-  the  term  ``features"  is  preferred  when  talking  about  lexical
descriptions;\\
- the terms ``tag" and ``tagsets" are used for the information associated
with words in context, i.e. in corpus annotation.\\

For the sake of re-usability,  the lexical descriptions should be  (as
far as possible)  independent from applications,  and should aim  at a
general   description  of  each  language.

The actual  corpus tags depend on at least the
following:\\
(1) the lexical features, and\\
(2) the capabilities of the  tagger
to disambiguate between different  lexical descriptions or   different
types of typical homographies present in different language types.\\

Therefore,
morphosyntax is encoded in a lexicon with fine granularity, while
a set of corpus tags usually reflects broader categories.\\

The corpus tags are, in fact,
developed  for each language with a particular
application in mind,  that of  producing  a corpus tagged for  part of
speech  (and possibly other morphosyntactic information)  by means  of
automatic disambiguation.
It  would be ideal  to tag  a  corpus  with  the lexical  descriptions
for each word themselves.  However, it is well known that this is considerably
beyond the capabilities of state-of-the art tagging techniques.
Corpus tags  are,  therefore,  to be seen as a  kind of underspecified
lexical tags.  There are two reasons  why we  may want  underspecify
corpus tags:\\

1.  Experience shows that some distinctions are difficult to get right
with a high rate of accuracy.
(For example,  in some languages, the disambiguation of indicative
present and subjunctive present in a corpus is extremely difficult  by
automatic means).\\

2.  In order to train the tagger, we need statistical tables (based on
co-occurrences  of tags).  If  we have a large tagset,  we need a very
large  corpus  to train  the disambiguator,  in order to observe  rare
co-occurrences.  For example,  in the proposal for French
presented in the MULTEXT
document (Monachini and Calzolari, Coords., 1994),
there are 249 different  lexical descriptions,  but  only 74 collapsed
corpus tags.  Experience  (Church,  Penn Treebank,  IBM France,  etc.)
shows that the tagset should be under 100.  In fact the Penn Treebank
collapsed many tags  compared  to the original Brown,  and  got better
results.\\

Two  other observations  are of  relevance  as  regards  the  relation
between lexical specifications and corpus tags.\\

(a) Sometimes tagging classes  are  in  reality  different  from  lexical
descriptions. For example,
classes for punctuation  are  needed and  certain types of
semantic or pragmatic or lexical information can  be  present  in  the
tags (e.g. the days of the week).\\

(b)  Furthermore,  the  ``collapsing"  decisions are sometimes language
dependent and therefore  it may  be not be appropriate  to  have completely
identical tagsets across languages.  We must preserve certain language-specific
peculiarities  (e.g. if  certain  distinctions  can be  easily
maintained by an automatic tagger,  it may be useful to preserve them).\\

\subsubsection{The concept of ``common" category}


A debate between the MULTEXT partners
generated some possible definitions of  ``common  category"
on which is worth reflecting:\\
-- the same meaning of a category implies  that it  enters  in the same
combinations  in  different  languages  (distributional definition  of
common categories);\\
-- a  category is  common  ``if  it  yields  isomorphic  partitions  of
word-lists  or  lexicons  under translation  (module  exceptions)".  A
category system is common to languages L0 and L1 if members of class C
in  L0  translate as members of C  in L1  (translational definition of
common categories);\\
-- a common category is  ``a category which conveys  the same linguistic
information  (i.e.  stands for the same linguistic phenomenon)  in all
the languages in which it is used";\\
--  ``a word class is common across the languages if it reflects
a  linguistic category/phenomenon  which is  either morphologically or
lexically  expressed in at least  two of these languages,  even though
there  may  be  not  a  one-to-one lexical relationship  for  this  in
translation".\\

We could define
common categories as ``those whose members satisfy the same criteria
and tests":  this crucially implies a clear definition of criteria for
the recognition of their members. These criteria will be given by
EAGLES in the next phase with the production of a set of Guidelines
for the application of the morphosyntactic features.\\
In  absence of such  explicit criteria,  we  can empirically recognize
``common"   categories   which  are  relevant  in  the  morphosyntactic
descriptions   of  a  number  of  European  languages.   These  common
categories  are usable and  actually used in the  largest lexicons and
corpora  and  have in  general the  same  ``meaning"  in  the different
languages,  even though the property of  ``commonality"  holds more for
open  classes  and poses more  problems  for function  words or closed
classes.\\

Taking  in  mind  this  simple  equation  of  ``common categories"  and
``actually  used categories", their  ``adequacy"  in terms of user
requirements can also be achieved: it is ``empirically" obtained through the
bottom-up process of looking at the largest and most  ``used"  lexicons
and tagging schemata  (as was done  here).  Behind these lexicons
and annotation schemata there have been  many different types of users
(of lexicons and of annotated corpora).\\

In fact,  with the above  caveat in mind,  it was found from  the analysis
of  the schemes that a lot of ``commonalities" proposed here
are relevant for many languages.  Different
schools and traditions of languages can agree on such a simple set  of
features.\\



\subsubsection{Objects described and level of description}

The typical objects that are described in this proposal
are lemmas (even though we do not deal here with lexical
decisions as to what to consider to be the lemma) and word-forms
at the morphosyntactic level. This essentially
includes information on the grammatical category or part of speech,
their subtypes as found in lexicons, and
inflectional phenomena to be encoded in attributes such
as gender, number, tense, etc.\\

What we propose here is the basic set of core features, derived
from a detailed analysis of the major European lexical and corpus
projects;
we do not aim at giving a completely worked out set of
specifications ready to be implemented as such. This task
is to be left at the level of the language specific
development of concrete application lexicons.\\

One problem which we encounter as far as objects
described are concerned is how to deal with the two
complementary phenomena of a) grammatical categories split
into more than one graphical unit (multiwords or
discontinuous words), and b) graphical units composed of
more than one grammatical category (e.g. contractions).
Examples of the first type are found in section 3, while
examples of the second type are found in section 8.

In general EAGLES recommends handling multiwords as
belonging to a single grammatical category, and
contractions as two separate grammatical categories, but
the option of a different treatment is left open.


\subsubsection{Descriptive approach over different languages wrt
monotonicity}

The general approach underlying the EAGLES proposal follows
the ET-7 (Heid and McNaught Eds. 1991) proposal of looking for the basic
phenomena at each level of linguistic description, going
to the more granular level, and providing the more
detailed set of features able to encode the relevant
phenomena.\\

This approach is taken here over the set of European
languages, trying to reach the same level of granularity
for the description of each of them. For each language,
the most common practices for lexicons and corpora
were considered.\\

The obvious consequence of the two approaches together
(i.e. granularity and many languages) is
that a large repository of potentially useful lexical specifications
is formed where all the features
which are necessary for the description of the basic
phenomena in the many languages considered
are juxtaposed to each other. Given the differences in
the different language-specific systems, where each
system has its own set of constraints, the large
collections of features -- summarized in the Tables at the
beginning of the description of each
grammatical category -- do not, and cannot, constitute
a consistent system to be implemented as such, but are a
redundant inventory of all the possible features relevant
for that category across the different languages (an ET-7
conformant big repository, according to the ``data pool" model).
Each language-specific system
can afterwards be implemented as a specific application
of the general redundant set, by picking up the features
and values appropriate for its system.\\

At the general level of the large synoptical tables there
is, by definition (i.e. by the very way in which they
were constructed), no property of monotonicity (and no
necessity of it), but, in contrast, there is redundancy
and conflicting values may also be found there.\\

It is only at the level of the language-specific
instantiations -- considered as applications where the problem
of the representation formalism will also arise -- that monotonicity can be
looked for. Instantiations of the general tables are
given for most of the European languages as a reinforcement of the EAGLES
proposal, and here -- in particular when these will be
detailed for real lexicon building -- the different
constraints have to be specified, as far as possible,
between different features, the range of pertinent
values for each feature have to be made explicit
and aspects of the hierarchical organisation of the features have to
be solved.\\

Within this approach it is assumed that not all the
values presented in the general Tables are relevant for
``all" the languages.
There will be cases in which some do not apply, and this
has to be made clear in the language-specific
applications.\\


\subsection{Present Status of the Morphosyntactic Proposal}

The present document, therefore, reflects the results obtained after
different phases and
many cycles of work:\\
-- The first version (December 1993)
of the document contained the survey of the
various systems, their comparison and a first sketch of the consensual
nucleus of morphosyntactic specifications.\\
-- This preliminary proposal has been applied to a number of European
languages: Italian, German, Spanish, English, Dutch and French.
This phase, which has been developed in a interval of few months --
corresponding to different versions of the present document --,
has generated a lot of feedback, especially at
the language-specific level.\\
-- A revision of the preliminary proposal in the light of the feedback
coming from the first cycle of applications, which has
caused changes mainly in the tables
at the Level-2b, was performed (March 1994 and June 1994).\\
-- The MULTEXT experience  (see above) -- in the multilingual
framework of a concrete project --
has been an important test-bed for the
proposal which has brought some modifications in the common proposal itself
(October 1994).\\
-- Other LRE projects,  RENOS and DELIS, have used
the EAGLES specifications to encode morphosyntactic information in
their lexicons. On the
side of corpora, the EAGLES proposal has been applied within the CRATER
Project.\\

All this feedback, incorporated in this document,
constitutes the basis of the present version of the document.\\

A further phase of revision of all the language-specific applications --
already included in the document and following an old version of the
proposal -- is now being performed in the light of the last changes.\\
The applications which have already been corrected
and restructured on the basis of the present proposal are those for
German, Italian, French and Spanish.
The Danish, Greek and Portuguese applications have been contributed
by our correspondents on the basis of the present proposal.\\

The inclusion of the revised applications in the document
could
mean a new phase of minor changes of the attributes and
values of the general tables and a new version of the document.\\


Experience  teaches that the  process  of  consensus  building
in order to arrive at a stable and broadly accepted standard,
is  of necessity a slow process: the proposal must undergo many
phases of discussions between experts in the field and many
cycles of applications for testing, evaluating
and refining the specifications.
It is essential  that the proposal/applications interaction
proceeds in both directions, as is happening now. The groups will,
therefore, take into account any relevant comment and feedback generated
by the circulation of the present preliminary proposal, which has still to be
considered as ``work in progress".\\

In the next phase -- as already mentioned above --,
within the exercise of trying to agree
on  a common  schema  while  applying  it  in  concrete  to  different
languages,
the EAGLES mophosyntactic subgroup will also concentrate
on the
drafting of Guidelines providing definitions and
explicit criteria for the application
of the specifications in the different languages.\\

Linked to the production of Guidelines for concrete application, more
work will also be required on some issues still outstanding in this
document, such as:\\
-- different cases of the `not applicable' value;\\
-- specification of
`any value' in the lexicon (when a value matches all the values foreseen
for a given attribute);\\
-- multiword expressions;\\
-- contractions.\\



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% CATEGORIES AND APPLICATIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% NOUNS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Noun}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf N    } & Type & Gend& Numb& Case & Count & Defin & Inflect \\
\hline \hline
M       &com      &m    &sg  &nom                &cou     &     &    \\
u       &prop     &f    &pl  &gen                &mass    &     &    \\
l       &         &n    &    &dat                &        &     &    \\
t       &         &     &    &acc                &        &     &    \\
        &         &     &    &voc                &        &     &    \\
\hline
G       &com     &  m      & sg  & & & &\\
e       &prop    &  f      & pl  & & & &\\
n       &        &         &     & & & &\\
\hline
A        &  *  &  m     & sg  & & & & \\
l        &     &  f     & pl  & & & & \\
D        &     &  n     &     & & & & \\
\hline
N       &com      &m    &sg  &nom                &        &     &    \\
E       &prop     &f    &pl  &gen                &        &     &    \\
R       &         &m+f  &s+p &dat                &        &     &    \\
C       &         &     &    &acc                &        &     &    \\
        &         &     &    &bas                &        &     &    \\
\hline
L       &com      &m    &sg  &nom                &cou     &     &    \\
e       &prop     &f    &pl  &gen                &mass    &     &    \\
e       &         &n    &    &dat                &        &     &    \\
c       &         &c    &    &acc                &        &     &    \\
h       &         &     &    &voc                &        &     &    \\
        &         &     &    &bas                &        &     &    \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
L0  &\multicolumn{7}{|c||}{{\bf N O U N}}\\
\hline
        &com      &m    &sg  &nom                &        &     &    \\
L       &prop     &f    &pl  &gen                &        &     &    \\
1       &         &n    &    &dat                &        &     &    \\
        &         &     &    &acc                &        &     &    \\
\hline
L       &          &    &    &       &cou    &  & \\
2       &          &     &    &       &mass   &  & \\
\hline
       &          &It c   &It n&Gr voc&  &Da def  &Da/Ge weak \\
L      &          &Du f(m)&    &Gr ind&  &Da indf &Da/Ge strg \\
2      &          &Du cont&    &      &  &Da unmk &Da/Ge mix  \\
b      &          &Sp trns&    &      &  &        &          \\
       &          &Sp notr&    &      &  &        &          \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}

\newpage

\subsection{Comments}

Nouns are commonly recognized by the systems under analysis, and
an immediate core of agreement as to their grammatical features
emerges, as is evident from the table above.\\


\subsubsection{Type}
This attribute is used to distinguish common
and proper nouns.
MULTILEX encodes this information
among the ``syntactic attributes of the LU (Lexical Unit)".
AlethDic splits
the nouns into two different categories: ``nom" and ``nom propre"
(this diverging treatment is
signalled in the table with an asterisk). However,
no transduction (see Monachini, Oestling 1992b)
and convergence problems arise between  these two approaches,
since they are easily intertranslatable.\\

\subsubsection{Case}
A discrepancy seems to concern this feature;
but ``Case"  does not appear in the GENELEX and AlethDic models amongst the
features for Nouns, owing to their monolingual French-based
orientation.\\

As already discussed in NERC (see Monachini and Oestling 1993b),
the values proposed under Case are
clearly not mutually disjunctive:
rather, some of them overlap (see Introductory part 1.3).
Given these overlappings, some facts have
to be pointed out:
\begin{itemize}
\item
the values can never appear all together in one language, but have
to be associated with a list of permitted values for that particular
language
\item
the signification of a value has to be seen in relation to the other
values of the same language
\end{itemize}

The relationship between the values, as it can be derived from
their use in
the analysed tagsets, is illustrated in the following tree:
\begin{verbatim}
                       Case
                      |    /\
                      |    |  oblique
                      |    |   |   |
                      |    |   |   |
                     gen   nom  dat  acc
\end{verbatim}

It must be stressed that each language system will use
its own pertinent set of values.

`Oblique', discussed here as a value of the feature Case,
is not pertinent to the category Noun; it is a value marked for Pronouns.

\subsubsection{Countability}

This attribute, which MULTILEX encodes
at the syntactic level, is
pertinent to many European languages; it
is, therefore, here included
on level 2a.

\subsubsection{Values on Level 2b - language specific}

On the level 2b of language-specific features the following values and
attributes appear (for the meaning and the discussion of the language-specific
values, see under the relevant applications):

- for {\bf Gender} `common', for Italian; `fem(masc)' and `context', for
Dutch; `transart', `notransart' for Spanish;\\
- for {\bf Number} `invariant';\\
- for {\bf Case} `vocative' and `indeclinable' marked in Greek;\\
- {\bf Definiteness} with the values `def, indef, unmark', for Danish;\\
- {\bf Inflection Type} with `weak, strong, mixed' is also on this level
to deal respectively with this Danish and German characteristics of nouns.

\newpage


\subsection{Application to Italian (Dictionary and Corpus)}


The following attribute-value sets are applied in Italian to Nouns
(It. tag: S for ``substantive"):\\

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it common}& (il) libro & {\bf S}\\
\hline
              & {\it proper}&  Mario   & S{\bf P}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& (il) libro    & S/{\bf m}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  (la) casa     & S/{\bf f}\\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&               &      \\
\hline
              & {\it common  }&  (l')insegnante & S/{\bf n}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
The value {\it common}, i.e. the same morphological form for masculine
and feminine, which is typical of Romance languages, is pertinent both to
lexica and corpora: unlike in the lexicon,
in a corpus the ambiguity can
often - though not always - be resolved by the context.\\
\begin{center}
       {\it l'insegnante capace insegna} (not possible to disambiguate)\\
       {\it l'insegnante brav}{\bf o}  {\it insegna}
       (possible to disambiguate)\\
\end{center}

The value {\it neuter} is not pertinent to Italian. Some
nouns present a sort of fossilized
neuter suffix,
coming from the ancient Latin neuter gender (in particular, plural
nouns denoting
``parts of the body" such as {\it membra, braccia, ciglia}
are still present in Italian, but they are not classified
 as neuter: they are
considered as exceptions in the morphological inflexional paradigms for
nouns, and are classified as ``feminine",
alternating with a ``masculine" inflexion)\footnote{In general, these
forms ending in {\it -a} alternate with the regular form of the plural:
{\it sg.
braccio, pl. bracci, braccia; sg. membro, pl. membri, membra; sg. ciglio,
pl. cigli, ciglia}. The two forms disambiguate, in the plural, the
polysemy contained in the noun in the singular.}.\\


\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& (il) libro    & S/m{\bf s}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & (i) libri      & S/m{\bf p}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it invariant}&(la/le) attivita'& S/f{\bf n}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
In Italian, the value {\it invariant} (It. tag: n), i.e.
the same morphological form for
the singular and the plural, is also
used. In particular, this value has to be coded
in a lexicon, while in a corpus the context usually solves the ambiguity.
\begin{center}
       {\it L'uomo svolgeva alcune attivita' particolar}{\bf i} (plur.)\\
      {\it L'uomo svolgeva} {\bf un'}
 {\it attivita' particolar}{\bf e} (sing.)\\
\end{center}


\subsubsection{Countability}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Countability}    & {\it countable}& la penna & -\\
\hline
              & {\it uncountable}&  lo zucchero   &-\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
This feature is neither used in the tagging of the corpus nor
is it at present encoded in the Italian lexicon, although its coding
is planned.\\

{\bf Application test}:\\

``Countable" is the noun which has the plural form; usually it cannot
be involved in
the partitive construction,
ex. {\it due penne} but not {\it * un po' di penna};
a mass noun admits the
partitive, ex. {\it un po' di zucchero}, and if used in the
plural {\it tre zuccheri} means ``three different types of sugar".\\

\subsubsection{Features not pertinent to Italian}

The feature
{\bf Case} does not apply to Italian nouns.\\

{\bf Definiteness} and  {\bf Inflection Type}  are
not pertinent to Italian.\\

\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}&example&tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it common}& (das) Buch & {\bf NN}:Neut.Nom.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it proper}&  Hans   & {\bf NE}:Masc.Nom.Sg\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}
& {\it masculine}& (der) Mann & NN:{\bf Masc}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it feminine}&  (die) Frau    & NN:{\bf Fem}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it neuter  }&  (das) Haus    & NN:{\bf Neut}.Nom.Sg  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}
& {\it singular}& (der) Mann     & NN:Masc.Nom.{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
& {\it plural}  & (die) M\"anner & NN:Masc.Nom.{\bf Pl}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Countability}

This feature is not used in the IMS-Tagset for German.

\subsubsection{Case}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}
& {\it nominative}& (der) Mann   & NN:Masc.{\bf Nom}.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it genitive}  & (des) Mannes & NN:Masc.{\bf Gen}.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it dative}    & (dem) Mann   & NN:Masc.{\bf Dat}.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it accusative} & (den) Mann  & NN:Masc.{\bf Akk}.Sg\\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{language-specific features}

In German, there are some nouns with adjectival inflection (especially
nominalized adjectives). These nouns distinguish {\em strong\/}, {\em
  weak\/} and {\em mixed\/} inflection, depending on the preceding
determiner (cf. section \ref{adj-infl}).

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Inflection}
& {\it strong} & (nichts) Gutes  & NN:Neut.Nom.Sg.{\bf St}\\
\hline
& {\it weak}   & (der) Beamte    & NN:Masc.Nom.Sg.{\bf Sw}\\
\hline
& {\it mixed}  & (ein) Beamter   & NN:Masc.Nom.Sg.{\bf Mix}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsection{Application to English}



English nouns do not have gender as a morphosyntactic category.  Also,
case is a dubious category, since the
 only
basis for a case distinction in modern English lies in the {\em 's} or {\em s'}
 ending
attached to nouns and to some pronouns. It is arguable, however, that in modern
English, this is not a case form, but an enclitic postposition.  (This would
 explain the
occurrence of phrases such as {\em in a month or two's time} or {\em in someone
else's garden}, where the {\em 's} is clearly suffixed not to the head noun, but
 to the
whole phrase.) Hence, in the present tagset, case is not applied to nouns, and
 the {\em
's} is treated as a postposition.

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Type} & {\em common} & book & NCs \\
 & {\em proper} & Martha & NPs \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Number}   & {\em singular} & book & NCs \\
 & {\em plural} & books & NCp \\
\hline
\end{tabular}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}     & {\it common\/}  &  boek    &  N  \\
\hline
               & {\it proper\/}  &  Piet    &  N   \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
CELEX has no specific attribute-value tag for Proper Nouns as a separate
category,
but has a proper noun subclassification tag set distinguishing four values. So
each
Proper Noun gets two tags: `N' for Noun and `geo.' for the type of Proper Noun
geographical names, and so on: `N' and `pers.' (names of people), `N' and
`merk.'
(Company or brand names), `N' and `over.' (other).\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Proper-Noun-Type}&{\it geographic\/}&Belfast& N {\bf  geo}.\\
\hline
                     &{\it persons\/} &  Wilma &N {\bf pers}.\\
\hline
                     &{\it brand\/} & Droste & N {\bf merk}.\\
\hline
                     &{\it other\/} & Teleac & N {\bf over}.\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The proposed attribute values Noun and Proper Noun are entirely appropriate on the
first
level for Dutch as well. The Proper Noun subclassification would be
introduced as an L2 tag.\\

\subsubsection{Gender}

CELEX distinguishes five basic gender tags. Apart from these, a number of
combinations of these five tags are also possible (double tags).\\
\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}   & {\it masculine} &  wijn    & m.    \\
\hline
               & {\it feminine}  &  ruimte  & v.     \\
\hline
               & {\it neuter}    &  vertrek & o.     \\
\hline
               & {\it fem.(masc)}&  bierhal & v.(m.) \\
\hline
               & {\it context}   &  gelovige& m.-v.  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The fourth category is: female nouns which can be treated as male.\\
\\
The fifth category is: nouns whose gender is context-dependent. These are, for
example, Adjectives and Present and Past participles used as nouns. Referential
characteristics, such as possessive nouns in the near context or other
contextual factors must
be used to help decide on the respective gender:
{\it
\begin{verbatim}
              De gelovige heeft een kaars in HAAR handen
              The worshiper holds a candle in HER hands
\end{verbatim}
}
`gelovige' (worshiper) is feminine.
{\it
\begin{verbatim}
             De gelovige heeft een kaars in ZIJN handen
             The worshiper hold a candle in HIS  hands
\end{verbatim}
}
`gelovige' (worshiper) is masculine.\\
\\
See also the subsection Language-specific features.\\

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}         &{\it singular} &  kanarie &  e\\
\hline
                     &{\it plural} & kanaries & m\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

These attribute values are not present in the LEMMAS lexicon, but are presented
 in
the CELEX Wordforms Lexicon. As will be seen below, `e' and `m' also feature in
 verbal
tags. \\
\\
CELEX distinguishes two other Noun features as well: \underline{diminutive
 singular} and
\underline{diminutive plural}. Flection Type tags are : `de' and `dm'. \\
\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Diminutive-Number}&{\it singular} &  kanarietje & de\\
\hline
                     &{\it plural} & kanariestjes & dm\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

This could be an L2 tag.\\
\\

\subsubsection{Countability}

CELEX does not account for countability, but
it is pertinent to Dutch.\\
\\

\subsubsection{Case}
CELEX does not treat Case as part of the syntactical system but as part of the
inflectional system. In Dutch the genitive `s', directly fixed behind the noun,
marks
possession, as in English. It also substantivizes adjectives: (iets) moois,
(iets) or (het)
lekkers etc. Case, other than genitive, is not pertinent to modern Dutch. Only
archaic
forms have the former case-dependent inflection. This must
be the reason why case
values
are not given in the Syntactical part of the CELEX Lemmas Lexicon but are
given in the
Wordforms lexicon.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case             }&{\it genitive} &  (dag des) oordeels & G\\
\hline
                     &{\it dative} & (te) gronde (richten) & D\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

Both tags are always combined with a `singular' or `plural' tag.\\
There are also GP tags (Genitive of Adjective Positive). Some morphologists
count such
word forms as adjectives, others as nouns. We count them as nouns. \\

{\bf Ge: Genitive singular:} hoofds.\\
{\bf GP: Genitive Positive:} lekkers, moois, nieuws (nouns deriving from
adjectives).\\
{\bf Gm: Genitive plural:} only pronouns in the CELEX lexicon!\\
{\bf De: Dative singular:} bate, behoeve, berde etc.\\
{\bf Dm: Dative plural:} only pronouns in the CELEX lexicon!\\

See also Case under Articles and Pronouns.\\
\\

\subsubsection{Language-specific features}
\paragraph{Concurrent Gender distinction}
Since in Dutch the distinction between
the male
and female gender of nouns is disappearing, another appropriate gender
distinction
is the distinction neuter/non-neuter, which is expressed in the
definite
article determining the noun: `de' for female/male words and `het' for neuter
words. As a
consequence of the fact that some words can be preceded by both articles, CELEX
distinguishes three tags: \\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf De/Het Woord     }&{\it non-neuter} &  de deur            & de\\
\hline
                     &{\it neuter} & het schip             & het\\
\hline
                     &{\it de or het} & de/het jolijt         & de/het\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

We need a special tag to mark up nouns which are part of a separable verb:
`paard' in
`paardrijden', separated word form: `Ik heb \underline{paard} gereden'. And
`hout' in `houthakken',
separated word form: `Wij hebben \underline{hout} gehakt' etc. See also
under {\it Separability\/}
and compare language-specific features of Adjectives and Adverbs.\\


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Spanish}


\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\ \hline\hline
\bf Type  & \it common & libro & common\\\hline
& \it proper & Pedro & proper\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute  & \it Value  &  Example  &   Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf Gender & \it masculine & (el) libro & masc\\\hline
 & \it feminine & (la) casa & fem\\\hline
 & \it neuter&& \\\hline
 & \it common & (el/la) responsable & *\\\hline
\bf l-spec & \it transart & el area & yes\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace*{.8cm}

The value neuter is not pertinent to Spanish: we have no neuter
nouns.

There are nouns in Spanish which could be valued as common since
they can be both masculine and feminine. However, in Eurotra there
is no such value: instead we leave the attribute ``gender" un-valued
at the lexical level. It is the grammar that fills this value via
unification, that is, any noun with its ``gender" attribute
un-valued will unify with both feminine and masculine articles.

A special case in Spanish with respect to gender is that of
feminine nouns beginning with stressed ``a" (having ``h" before
or not). These nouns take, when in the singular, the masculine
allomorph of the (un)definite article if this immediately precedes
the noun:\\

{\it el aguila calva} (the(masc,sing) bald(fem,sing) eagle)\\
{\it las aguilas calvas} (the(fem,plu) bald(fem,plu) eagles)\\

{\it la gran aguila} (the(fem,sing) great eagle)\\

In order to avoid problems of concord, we add a new
boolean attribute (``transart") which serves to distinguish these
nouns: when its value is `yes', a formation rule performs the marking
of the article in order for the translator to change its gender
value:\\

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf transart & \it yes & el area & yes\\\hline
    & \it no & el ni\~{n}o & no\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace*{.8cm}
This ``transart" attribute could be treated as a language-specific
value for the attribute ``Gender". \\


\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value  & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
 \bf number & \it singular & el libro & sing\\\hline
& \it plural & los libros & plu\\\hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace*{.8cm}

A special case concerning ``number" is that of those nouns with
the same morphological form for the singular and the plural:

   eg: {\it la crisis, la dosis, el martes, el chasis, el an\'{a}lisis}\\
\hspace*{.5cm}{\it las crisis,
las dosis, los martes, los chasis, los an\'{a}lisis}\\

Just as in the case of ``el/la responsable" above, we leave these
nouns unvalued for ``Number". We get the value via unification with
the value of the article and/or adjective accompanying the noun.
Of course, we could add a language-specific value to mark these
nouns.

Another special case is that known as ``pluralia tantum". This group
comparises nouns
which are always plural, where the plurality does not come
from any inflectional process but is rather inherent to the
noun itself:

   eg: {\it v\'{i}veres, a\~{n}icos, entendederas...} \hspace*{.2cm}
(provisions, bits, brains)\\

\subsubsection{Case}

Not applicable to Spanish nouns although it is present in the
Eurotra dictionary for nouns since we include pronouns in the
noun category. To distinguish between nouns and pronouns we have
the attribute ``Nform":\\


\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf nform & \it normal & casa & norm\\\hline
& \it clitic & le & cli\\\hline
    & \it pronoun & \'{e}l & pro\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace*{.8cm}

This requires us to include new attribute referents to
pronouns such as ``possessive" in our category Noun.

\subsubsection{Countability}

This attribute is not included in Eurotra's lexicons at the
morphosyntax level. Countability is treated as a semantic
attribute with the values ``countable" and ``uncountable".

\newpage
%------------------------
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

%--------
\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}   &  Example        &   Tag          \\
\hline
{\bf Type}          &    {\it common } & livre           &  {\bf SUBS}MS  \\
\hline
                    &    {\it proper } & UNIX            &  NPRO          \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}     &  Example        &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}        &    {\it masculine} &  homme          &  SUBS{\bf M}S \\
\hline
                    &    {\it feminine}  &  femme          &  SUBS{\bf F}S \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{5mm}

Note that some proper nouns can bear gender information (see below).

%--------
\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}    &  Example       &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Number}        &    {\it singular} &  b\'{e}b\'{e}  &  SUBSM{\bf S} \\
\hline
                    &    {\it plural}   &  b\'{e}b\'{e}s &  SUBSM{\bf P} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
Note that some proper nouns can bear number information (see below).

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Countability} is not applicable to the IBMF tagset.
Being clearly of a semantic nature, it is not obvious why it should
feature in a morphosyntactic description scheme.

{\bf Case, Definiteness, Inflexion type} are not applicable to French.

%--------
\subsubsection{IBMF Tagset features not applicable in EAGLES}

In the IBMF tagset, it has been found useful for disambiguation purposes
to refine the proper noun class into subclasses.
It can be noted that some of these classes bear gender/number information.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
 \hline
 Tag                &  Meaning            &  Examples         \\
 \hline
 XFAMIL             &  family name        &  Smith, Dupont    \\
 XPAYFP             &  country name, fem.pl.   &  (les) Seychelles \\
 XPAYFS             &  country name, fem.sing. &  (la) France      \\
 XPAYFP             &  country name, masc.pl.  &  (les) U.S.A.     \\
 XPAYFP             &  country name, masc.sing.&  (le) Danemark    \\
 XPREF              &  christian name, fem. & Mary, Marie     \\
 XPREM              &  christian name, masc.& John, Jean      \\
 XSOC               &  company name       &  Olivetti, IBM    \\
 XVILLE             &  city name          &  Paris, Pise      \\
 \hline
\end{tabular}

%------------------------------------------
\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         common      livre       c
             proper      Jean        p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   homme       m
             feminine    femme       f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    homme       s
             plural      femme       p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

Non applicable to French.


\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Ncms-     homme
Ncmp-     hommes
Ncfs-     femme
Ncfp-     femmes
Npms-     Jean
Npmp-     Pays-bas
Npfs-     Anne
Npfp-     Pyrenees
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}


The following attribute-value sets are applied in Portuguese to Nouns
:\\

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
Attribute       Value         Example          Tag
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
Type            common        rapaz
                proper        Lisboa
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
Attribute       Value           Example        Tag
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
Gender          masculine       rapaz
                feminine        rapariga
                neuter
                common
----------- --------------- -------------- -------------
\end{verbatim}


The value {\it common} is not explicitly used in GENELEX, though the nominal
inflectional patterns built in the framework of this project implicitly make
use of it for nouns such as, for instance, {\it (o/a) dentista}. For Portuguese this
 value can be a L2a value.\\

The value {\it neuter} is not pertinent to Portuguese. (Although, as in
other languages, some nouns from classical languages presenting a kind of
neuter suffix [e.g. {\it lexica}] can be used in Portuguese, they are
typically assigned a pattern of masculine inflection.)\\


\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------- ------------- --------------- ------------------
Attribute       Value          Example         Tag
------------- ------------- --------------- ------------------
Number          singular       rapaz
                plural         rapazes
                invariant
------------- ------------- --------------- ------------------
\end{verbatim}

\vspace{15mm}
The value {\it invariant} is not explicitly used in the Portuguese GENELEX
model, though the nominal inflectional patterns built in the framework of
this project implicitly make use of it for nouns such as, for instance,
{\it (o/os) atlas}, {\it (a/as) sandes}. For Portuguese this value can be a
L2a value.\\


\subsubsection{Countability}

\vspace{15mm}
Though this feature is not encoded in the GENELEX morphological layer, it is true
that nouns in Portuguese can be used sometimes in a ``count" sense and other
times in a ``mass" sense.
Considering the principles of granularity supporting the distinction between
L1 and L2a, we think that this feature should be considered ``Application
 dependent".\\


\subsubsection{Features not pertinent to Portuguese}

The features {\bf Case}, {\bf Defineteness} and {\bf Inflection Type}
don't apply to Portuguese nouns.\\


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Danish}

For Danish nouns the following features are relevant: Type, Gender, Number, Case
 (restricted) and Definiteness (language-specific property). The
attribute `Countability' may also be useful at the lexicon level.\\

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}     & {\it common}    &  lampe   & sb    \\
\hline
               & {\it proper}    &  Peter   & sb\_{\bf prop}   \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


\subsubsection{Case}

% Text in ASCII
The Danish nominal inflectional system comprises only two cases -- genitive and
 non-genitive (oblique) -- which are mutually disjunctive. The value `ngen' will
 not be used by the corpus tagger, because this oblique form is unmarked in
 Danish.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}     & {\it non-genitive} & lampe   & sb\_sg\_{\bf ngen}
\\
\hline
                & {\it genitive}  &  lampes  & sb\_sg\_{\bf gen} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Countability}

%Text in ASCII
This feature is treated within the EDEMD and within traditional Danish
 dictionaries as defective inflectional patterns like `singularia tantum' and
 `pluralia tantum', as a parallel to countability, i.e. non-countable or mass
 words like `maelk'
(milk), `vand' (water), and a number of deverbal nouns like `drift' (drift) are
 non-countable and also singularia tantum. Those words do not have a plural
form.
On the other hand, words like `penge' (money) only have a plural form, which is
 also marked in the dictionaries mentioned above.
The tags below are examples of the Eurotra encoding, and they
are values of the attribute sub-category of nouns in the lexicon. Other useful
 tags would be `count' and `non-count' as values in the lexicon for the
 attribute countability. The corpus tagger will recognise the inflected forms
 occurring in the corpus.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Countability}   & {\it singulare tantum}  & (en) kulde & sb\_{\bf singtant}
 \\
\hline
               & {\it plurale tantum}    &   penge    & sb\_{\bf plutant} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}   & {\it common}    &  (en) lampe & sb\_{\bf comm} \\
\hline
               & {\it neuter}    &  (et) bord  & sb\_{\bf neut} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}   & {\it singular}  & (en) lampe & sb\_{\bf sg} \\
\hline
               & {\it plural}    &   lamper    & sb\_{\bf pl} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Language-specific features: Definiteness}

% Text in ASCII
In Danish, nouns can be marked for definiteness with the enclitic article; in
 singular common gender: -(e)n; singular neuter: -(e)t; and in plural: -(e)ne (no
 gender distinction).

The order of inflectional endings is: number + enclitic article + genitive
 suffix, e.g.
lampe + s;  lampe + r + ne + s, which give the tag combinations
 sb\_comm\_sg\_indef\_gen and sb\_comm\_pl\_def\_gen, respectively.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Definiteness} & {\it indefinite} & (en) lampe & sb\_comm\_sg\_{\bf indef}
 \\
\hline
               & {\it definite} & lampen & sb\_comm\_sg\_{\bf def} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\newpage

\subsection{Application to Greek}


Nouns in Greek are inflected for number and case. The following
set of attribute-value pairs is derivable from information coded
in the Morphological Lexicon (either in the stem or the
inflectional paradigm).


\subsubsection{Type}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it common}& vivlio   & No{\bf Cm}\\
\hline
              & {\it proper}& Ghiannys & No{\bf Pr}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& ouranos    & NoCm{\bf Ma}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  karekla    & NoCm{\bf Fe}\\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&  vivlio     & NoCm{\bf Ne}\\
\hline
 {\it l-spec}    & {\it masc-fem}&  tamias     & NoCm{\bf Co}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}

The value {\it masc-fem} is used for nouns that remain the same
both in the masculine and in the feminine gender (e.g. nouns
denoting professions); note that since these nouns do not
have a neuter gender, the label {\it masc-fem} is considered
preferable to {\it common}. Although the linguistic context may
contribute to the resolution of the ambiguity in certain cases
(usually on the basis of the modifying article and/or adjective,
given that they must agree in gender with the noun), the value
remains in the corpus as well, for reasons of uniformity:\\

\begin{center}

      {\it {\bf O} tamias eina apasholimen{\bf os}} (masc.)\\

      {\it {\bf y} tamias einai apasholimen{\bf y}} (fem.)\\

but   {\it {\bf Oi} tamies efughan} (masc. or fem.)\\

\end{center}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& vivlio    & NoCmNe{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & vivlia    & NoCmNe{\bf Pl}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it invariant}&asanser & NoCmNe{\bf Nv}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


The value {\it invariant} is used in Greek for those nouns that
do not have a morphological variant for the singular and plural
number. This holds mainly for foreign words that have been
incorporated in the Greek language and have been accepted as
``Greek words" but which, however, have not been adapted to the
Greek inflectional system. The linguistic context (modifying
article/adjective) can serve as a disambiguating device in the
case of corpus tagging:\\

\begin{center}

      {\it {\bf To} asanser vrisk{\bf etai} sto isogheio} (sing.)\\

      {\it Einai halasmen{\bf a} kai {\bf ta} dhuo asanser} (plural)\\

\end{center}






\subsubsection{Case}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}    & {\it nom}& vivlio & NoCmNeSg{\bf Nm}\\
\hline
              & {\it gen}& vivliou & NoCmNeSg{\bf Ge}\\
\hline
              & {\it acc}& vivlio  & NoCmNeSg{\bf Ac}\\
\hline \hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it voc}& Ghianny & NoPrMaSg{\bf Vo}\\
\hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it indcl}& asanser & NoCmNeNv{\bf Ic}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


The value {\it indcl}, mutually exclusive from the other four
values, is used in Greek for words that retain the same form in
whichever case they are found, either in the singular or in the
plural. As commented earlier, this value mainly applies
to foreign words which have been incorporated in the Greek
language without having taken on the morphological characteristics
of the Greek inflectional system. The case value can be
disambiguated by taking into account the linguistic context in
corpora, on the basis of agreement features:\\

\begin{center}

      {\it {\bf To} asanser vrisketai sto isogheio} (nominative)\\

      {\it Vrika tyn porta {\bf tou} asanser anoihty} (genitive)\\

\end{center}

The vocative case (value {\it voc}) is rarely used in written
texts; it can only be found in literary texts, and, in general,
in dialogues. The sentence in which it is found is often
followed by an exclamation mark:\\


\begin{center}

      {\it Ghianny, ela edhw{\bf !}}\\

\end{center}

The above two values, {\it indcl} and {\it voc} are specific to
the Greek language, and, therefore, belong to level L2b.\\

It is often the case (as regards nouns of the feminine or neuter
gender) that the same form is used for both the nominative and
the accusative case. Although the use of a new value, {\it
nom-acc}, would contribute to economy in the lexicon, we have
decided to keep them as distinct values and proceed to ambiguity
resolution in the process of corpus tagging. Disambiguation can
only be made on the basis of the linguistic context, either
simply by inspection of the modifying article/adjective, or, if
that is not sufficient, by resort to shallow syntactic analysis
(subject/object role):\\


\begin{center}

      {\it {\bf Y} karekla einai sto dhiplano dhwmatio} (nom.)\\

      {\it Koitazei {\bf tyn} karekla} (acc.)\\

but \\

      {\it {\bf To} vivlio vrisketai sto trapezi} (subj. - nom.)\\

      {\it Vrika {\bf to} vivlio} (obj. - acc.)\\

\end{center}





\subsubsection{Countability}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Countability}    & {\it countable}& vivlio & -\\
\hline
              & {\it mass}& plythos    & -\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


This feature is not used at present in the Greek Morphological
Lexicon (and, thus, is not used in the corpus tagging either).
However, it applies to the Greek linguistic system and it is
intended to code it in the future.\\




\subsubsection{Features not pertinent to Greek}



Features {\bf Definiteness} and  {\bf Inflection Type}  are

not pertinent to Greek.\\






%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% VERBS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage
\section{Verb}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf V}&Type&Fin&Vf-M&Tns&P&N&G&Asp&Vce&Refl&MVf&AuF&Aux&Sep&Clt\\
\hline \hline
M&mai& inf  &ind  &pres&1  &s& &ifve &act &    &   &   &LU &LU &\\
u&mod& prpt &sub  &fut &2  &p& &perf &pas &    &   &   &   &   &\\
l&prf& pspt &impr &past&3  & & &pfve &refl&    &   &   &   &   &\\
t&prg& ger  &     &    &   & & &prog &norf&    &   &   &   &   &\\
i&pas& sup  &     &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
l&cop& cond &     &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
\hline
G&   &      &ind  &pres&1  &s&m&     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
e&   &      &sub  &impf&2  &p&f&     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
n&   &      &impr &fut &3  & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
e&   &      &cond &past&   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
l&   &      &part &pa-s&   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
 &   &      &inf  &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
\hline
A&   &      &ind  &pres&1  &s&m&     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
l&   &      &sub  &impf&2  &p&f&     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
e&   &      &impr &fut &3  & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
t&   &      &cond &past&   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
h&   &      &part &pa-s&   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
 &   &      &inf  &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
\hline
N&   &inf   &ind  &pres&1&s   &m       &&&&&&&& \\
E&   &part  &sub  &impf&2&p   &f       &&&&&&&& \\
R&   &ger   &impr &fut &3&sp  &mf      &&&&&&&& \\
C&   &sup   &cond &past& &    &        &&&&&&&& \\
 &   &fin   &     &pret& &    &        &&&&&&&& \\
\hline
L&mai& inf  &ind  &pres&1  &s& &ifve &act &    &   &   &hv &sep&\\
e&mod& part &sub  &impf&2  &p& &simp &pas &    &   &   &be &oth&\\
e&prf& ger  &impr &past&3  & & &     &refl&    &   &   &   &   &\\
c&prg& sup  &cond &fut &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
h&pas& fin  &     &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
 &pph&      &     &    &   & & &     &    &    &   &   &   &   &\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
L0&\multicolumn{15}{|c||}{{\bf V E R B}}\\
\hline
E&mai &fin  &ind &pres&1   &s &m   &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
A&aux &     &sub &impf&2   &p &f   &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
G&mod &     &impr&fut &3   &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
 &    &     &cond&past&    &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
 &    &no-  &inf &    &    &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
L&    &fin  &part&    &    &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
1&    &     &ger &    &    &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
 &    &     &sup &    &    &  &    &   &    &    &   &   & & &\\
\hline
L&s-aux&    &   &      &    &    &     &pfve&act &rfl &trs&prg& & & \\
2&cop&    &   &      &    &    &     &ifve&pas &norf&int&prf& & & \\
a&   &    &   &      &    &    &     &    &    &    &imp&pss& & & \\
 &   &    &   &      &    &    &     &    &    &    &   &pph& & & \\
\hline
L&  &    &Ge zu  & &    &    &It c & & & & &  &hv& Du sep&clt\\
2&  &    &En ing & &    &    &     & & & & &  &be& Du nos&noc\\
b&  &    &En bas & &    &    &     & & & & &  &  &       &\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}

\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

Verbs are consensually recognized at the level of category.\\

The major problem concerns the different internal organizations of the
verbal systems which characterize Romance languages on the one hand
as opposed to English on the other hand.
Romance languages, but also, e.g., German,
are highly inflectional,
whilst English presents very few inflections and scarce
morphological distinctions for moods and tenses.\\

Furthermore, the Leech/Wilson and MULTILEX proposals, in particular,
introduce new distinctions which in the present proposal appear
distributed on different levels (see sections 3.1.3 and following).

\subsubsection{Type}
This attribute permits the encoding of the nature of a verb
as `main', `auxiliary', `modal' (distinctions seen as recommended),
and `copulative' and `semiauxiliary' (optional, and therefore proposed at
level 2a,
e.g. {\it venire} in Italian is used in some cases as a variant
to {\it essere} to form the passive).

\subsubsection{Finiteness, Verb-Form/Mood}

A different grammatical tradition motivates in English the use of the
feature Verb-Form, with values which in Romance languages are typical
of the feature Mood.
This emerges immediately from the above table, if MULTILEX,
NERC and the Leech/Wilson proposal, all designed for a multilingual encoding
system, are compared with GENELEX and AlethDic, which are
modeled for French verbs, i.e. a system belonging to the Romance tradition.\\

In a certain sense, the matter can be seen as a problem of
the distribution of some values
under one or another attribute.
As already noted in the NERC survey
(Monachini and Oestling 1992b, p.13),
the feature Verb-Form appears
``strange" from a Romance language point of view, and therefore
the problem was
left open as an area for further analyses and suggestions. The features
Verb-Form and Mood in Monachini and Oestling
have been arranged in a tree, with Mood hierarchically dependent on
one of the possible values of Verb-Form, i.e. ``finite".\\

The proposal formulated in what follows for reaching a consensus
is to
introduce,
besides ``finite", the value ``non-finite" as a new value of a new
feature {\bf Finiteness}, and to create a feature called
{\bf Verb-Form/Mood
(Vf-M)} with the relevant values which could be seen
in subordinate position with respect to the values
`finite' and `non-finite'. In such a way, the feature
Verb-Form/Mood can be considered totally in hierarchical subordination
with respect to Finiteness. For this reason, each language-specific
morphological system has to define explicit and strong constraints
on which combinations of attributes and values are meaningful for the
system (see e.g. the Italian application, section 3.2.1).\\
The situation can be represented as follows:
\begin{verbatim}
                     Finiteness
                        /\
          non-finite           finite
              |                  |
        Verb-Form/Mood      Verb-Form/Mood
            /||\                /||\
      inf part ger sup     ind sub impr cond
\end{verbatim}

With this new arrangement, English encoding systems, which do not reach
the level of distinction given here for finite Verb-Form/Mood,
can stop at the encoding of Finiteness with the value ``finite", while
Romance languages will not have problems in being compelled to
call some Moods
Verb-Forms (contrary to their tradition).
Furthermore, the above proposal is completely compatible
with the Romance verbal systems, since, in those systems,
the values of Moods are
implicitly finite and non-finite, in the speaker's intuition.\\


\subsubsection{Tense}

Tense, as can be observed, does not contain values for ``compound
tenses", in general past tenses,
which in corpora are not usually dealt with by automatic
taggers.
The possibility of ``re-building" and deducing analytic verbal
forms, by
means of e.g. rules and permitted combinations of
``auxiliary-past participle"
in the various languages, is provided by values presented
here as special extensions, which encode the auxiliary nature of a
verb.\\
This introduces a distinction between the requirements of an encoding
scheme for corpora and for lexica: the latter also need specifications
for compound tenses.\\

Another problem for Tense is posed by the value ``past",
since it changes its ``meaning" in the various verbal systems,
depending on the opposition relationships among values in a language.
The English `past' does not have the same meaning as the `past' in the
Romance languages: it is not opposed to an `imperfect' value,
but instead
it seems to be in opposition to the `present'.\\
In NERC, a proposal for the disambiguation of
this complicated situation was made with the following tree:

\begin{verbatim}
                           Tense
                        /    |    \
                 future   present   past_E
                                      /\
                       past_R (perfect)  imperfect
\end{verbatim}

In Romance language systems, the values `past' and `imperfect' are
opposed and designate two different aspects of a   past
action.  Both are opposed to the `present' with respect to
the notion they represent: `past' is a non-durative action finished
in the past and `imperfect' is a durative action initiated in
the past.
In order to avoid misunderstandings,
a tentative solution could be to
rename the Romance `past' value as `perfect', since it is opposed to
`imperfect'.\\


\subsubsection{Person, Gender and Number}

These features do not pose problems.

\subsubsection{Aspect}

The values proposed here are `perfective' and `imperfective'
and, given the syntactic pertinence of this attribute,
they appear at level
2a.\\


\subsubsection{Voice}
The values `active' and `passive' are proposed at the level 2a
of optional features. The distinction between `reflexive' vs. `non-reflexive',
foreseen by MULTILEX under this attribute, is treated here as a separate
feature (see below).\\


\subsubsection{Reflexivity}

This feature encodes
phenomena which in the MULTILEX scheme are collapsed under the
feature Voice.
The two values of boolean type are arranged on level 2a for the
encoding of verbs appearing with the reflexive pronoun as a clitic. The
further distinction between true reflexive, pronominal, reciprocal, etc.
can be dealt with only at the syntactic level.

\subsubsection{Main-Verb Function and Auxiliary Function}
These two attributes
have to be seen in subordinate position with respect to the two values
of Type `main' and `auxiliary' and belong to level 2a. Their
respective values are:\\

{\bf Main-Verb Function (MVf)}:\\
`trans', `intrans', `impers'.\\

{\bf Auxiliary Function (AuF)}:\\
`prg': for auxiliaries used to form progressive tenses ({\it be, ...})\\
`prf': for auxiliaries used to form perfect tenses ({\it have, avere, ...})\\
`pss': for auxiliaries used to form passives ({\it etre, worden, werden, ...})\\
`pph': periphrastic auxiliary ({\it do, ...})\\

Auxiliary Function, proposed in the present work, encodes
phenomena which in the surveyed schemes are collapsed under the
feature Type. Main-Verb Function is a completely new feature.


\subsubsection{Level-2b specifications}


\paragraph{Auxiliary}
This attribute encodes information concerning the choice of
auxiliary for perfect or compound tenses and obviously is
language-specific (e.g. {\it have, be} for English).

\paragraph{Separability}
This is used in Dutch for verbs including separable particles, such as
{\it faengt ... an}.\\

\paragraph{Clitic}
This feature with boolean values
is introduced at language-specific level to encode the
presence in the verbal form of the clitic.

\paragraph{language-specific values for Tense}

The values proposed here for English are `ing-form' and `base-form`.
The value `infinitive incorporating ``zu"' is added for German.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

The following set of morphological features are pertinent to Verbs in
Italian: Mood, Tense, Person, Gender, Number.
These features, variously
combined, dynamically generate the inflected forms of the Italian
verbal system, but not all the features and sometimes not all the
values of a feature are applied to an inflected form.
The constraints in the application of these features are made explicit
in the sections devoted to each feature.\\

The following attribute-value sets are applied to Italian verbs.

\subsubsection{Type}

The verbs {\it avere} and {\it essere} are marked as auxiliaries.
It should be noted that an automatic tagger is not able to disambiguate
the cases in which these verbs function as full verbs
[{\it il bambino e' a casa} (the child is at home), {\it Io ho
un cane} (I have a dog)] from the cases when they are auxiliaries.

\subsubsection{Finiteness and Verb-Form/Mood}

The feature Finiteness is not encoded in itself, i.e. does not have a
special mark
in the Italian corpus or in the lexicon. It is implicity contained in
the various distinctions of Mood, which is hierarchically dependent
on the two possible values of Finiteness:
on the one hand, infinitive,
participle, gerund are non-finite; on the other hand, indicative,
subjunctive, conditional, imperative are finite.
It can, therefore, be derived automatically from existing codes.\\
The application of
these two features to Italian can be represented as follows:\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it value}}& It. ex.& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Finiteness}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it non-finite}}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       {\bf Attribute}&{\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
          & {\bf Verb-Form/Mood}&{\it infinitive} &amare  &V/{\bf f}  \\
\hline
          &      &{\it participle} &amato  &V/{\bf p}\\
\hline
          &      &{\it gerund}     &amando &V/{\bf g}\\
\hline
          &      &{\it supine}     &   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Finiteness}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it finite}}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       {\bf Attribute}&{\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
          & {\bf Verb-Form/Mood}&{\it indicative} &amo    &V/s1{\bf i}\\
\hline
          &     &{\it subjunctive}&amasse &V/s3{\bf c}\\
\hline
          &     &{\it imperative}&amate  &V/p2{\bf m} \\
\hline
          &     &{\it conditional}&amerei &V/s1{\bf d}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Tense}

It has to be said that
not all the
values listed for the feature Tense are applied to all the values of
Mood.\\
The table below represents the constraints on the application of the
values of Tense to Mood in Italian.
Note that, if a value of tense is applied to a value of mood, but
is expressed by a compound form, this is noted with (cmpd). All
details about compound forms are given below.\\

\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||l|}{{\bf Finiteness}} &
\multicolumn{4}{|c|}{{\it finite}} &
\multicolumn{3}{|c|}{{\it non-finite}}\\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||l|}{{\bf Verb-Form/Mood}}&
{\it indic}&{\it subj}&{\it condit}&{\it imper}&{\it inf}&{\it part}&
{\it ger}\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense}&{\it pres}&amo         &ami&amerei&ama&amare&amante&amando\\
           &{\it impf}&amavo       &amassi&     &    &    &     &      \\
           &{\it fut }&amero'      &     &     &    &    &     &      \\
           &{\it past}&amai +(cmpd)&(cmpd)&(cmpd)& &(cmpd)&amato&(cmpd)\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\\


Considerations about the ``meaning" of {\it past} in Italian have
to be added:
{\bf past} corresponds here to {\it passato remoto}.

%%Opposition system to be added.

A problematic aspect of Tense, that of
``simple" tenses and ``compound" tenses, and the connected difference in
requirements for corpora and lexica, has already been
dealt with in the general section of comments on the table for verbs.\\
We give here the list of permitted
``auxiliary-past participle" combinations
in Italian, in order to obtain compound tenses.\\


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
 Auxiliary  &  Past participle & Compound tense  & It. ex.\\
\hline \hline
indic pres  &  past participle & passato prossimo &ho amato\\
\hline
indic impf  &  past participle & trapassato prossimo &avevo amato\\
\hline
indic past  &  past participle & trapassato remoto   &ebbi amato\\
\hline
indic fut   &  past participle & futuro anteriore   & avro' amato\\
\hline
subj pres   &  past participle & congiuntivo passato& abbia amato\\
\hline
subj impf   &  past participle & congiuntivo trapassato& avessi amato\\
\hline
cond pres   &  past participle & condizionale passato& avrei amato\\
\hline
inf  pres   &  past participle & infinito passato& avere amato\\
\hline
ger pres    &  past participle & gerundio passato& avendo amato\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Person}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
Person & 1 & amo & V/s{\bf 1}\\
\hline
       & 2 & ami & V/s{\bf 2}\\
\hline
       & 3 & ama & V/s{\bf 3}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

This feature, among the simple morphological verbal units,
is pertinent only to the Mood {\it participle}: it agrees with
nouns as an adjective (note on the agreement with object {\it
avendo letta la lettera, uscii}, note on ablativo assoluto).\\
The value {\it common} does not apply to the past participle.
The gender of past participle, in context,
helps to disambiguate the gender
of the noun itself, when this
is morphologically
unmarked.
\begin{center}
{\it Insegnanti capaci sono partit{\bf e} ...\\
Insegnanti capaci sono partit{\bf i} ...}\\
\end{center}

The value {\it common} is applied only to the present participle,
where the gender is undecided in the lexicon, even though it can
be disambiguated in the corpus.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& amato (past part)& V/pr{\bf m}\\
              &                & (un) amante(pr part)& V/pp{\bf m}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  amata (past part) & V/pr{\bf f} \\
              &               & (un') amante (pr  part) & V/pp{\bf f} \\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&    -          &   -  \\
\hline
              & {\it common  }&(l') amante (pr part) & V/pp{\bf n} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
\subsubsection{Number}


This has only two values, {\it singular} and {\it plural}.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number} & {\it singular} & amo, ami, ama & V/{\bf s}\\
\hline
       & {\it plural} & amiamo, amate, amano & V/{\bf p}\\
\hline
       & {\it invariant}&       -              &  - \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\subsubsection{Combination of features}

Italian verbs have a maximum of 52 different inflected word-forms derived
from different combinations of morphological
features for simple morphological units
(i.e. excluding compound forms).\\
In summary, the following combinations of morphological features are
applied, depending on Verb-form and, within a Verb-form, on
different Moods.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf SIMPLE FORMS}&{\bf Finiteness}&{\bf Verb-Form/Mood}&{\bf gramm. features}\\
\hline \hline
          &{\it finite}    &{\it ind} &{\bf Tense Person Number}\\
\hline
          &                &{\it sub} &{\bf Tense Person Number}\\
\hline
          &                &{\it impr}&{\bf Tense Person Number}\\
\hline
          &                &{\it cond}&{\bf Tense Person Number}\\
\hline
          &{\it non-finite}&{\it inf} &{\bf Tense}\\
\hline
          &                &{\it ger} &{\bf Tense} \\
\hline
          &                &{\it part}&{\bf Tense Number Gender}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
Compound forms have the following combinations:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf COMPOUND FORMS}&{\bf Finiteness}& {\bf grammatical features}\\
\hline \hline
              &{\it finite}         & {\bf Tense Person Number Gender}\\
\hline
              &{\it non-finite}     & {\bf Tense Gender Number}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
Compound forms, because of the presence of the participle, have
the feature Gender.\\

%%Notes to be added on Passive Voice (compound).

\subsubsection{Enclitic Phenomenon}

In Italian, pronouns (pronominal particles)
can accompany verbs in order to form:\\
(i)   the pronominal form of the verb\\
(ii)  the reflexive form\\
(iii) the reciprocal form\\

As far as the lexicon is concerned, the possibility of taking clitics of
different types (reflexive, reciprocal, etc.) has to be encoded in the
entry, but depends on the syntactic type of the verb; these problems should
therefore be dealt with on the syntactic level.\\

In these forms, the unstressed variant of the pronoun is, in general,
separated graphically by the verb (it precedes the verb),
except with the infinitive, the gerund and the imperative form and
sometimes (rarely) with the past participle.
{\it
\begin{verbatim}
           egli si lava
           lavarsi, lavandosi, lavati, lavatosi
\end{verbatim}
}

At the corpus level, a clitic pronoun can be attached to the verb\\
- when it expresses the direct object,
{\it dirlo (dire+lo} = to say it) or the indirect object,
{\it dirgli (dire+gli} = to say to him),\\
- when it expresses a place adverb:
{\it andarci (andare+ci)} (to go there).\\

Sequences of a verb with more than one pronoun in a unique graphical
form are found if both
the direct object and the indirect object of a pronominal verb
form are represented by
a clitic pronoun: ex.
{\it dandomelo (dando+me+lo)} = giving it to me).
These types of compounds can present
the phenomenon of epenthesis, i.e. the insertion of a letter for
euphonetic reasons: ex. {\it dandoglielo (dando+gli+e (epenthetic)+lo)}
= giving it to him).\\

As to the dictionary encoding,
`verb-pronoun' compounds have to be represented;
the problem of encoding specific `verb-more-than-one-pronoun'
compounds only concerns corpus encoding.

The strategy adopted in
tagging them is to assign differents tags
to the different parts forming the word-token, with a special
mark which maintains the graphical links, thus
permitting the recovery of the unique
graphical form.\\

\newpage

% ***** BEGIN GERMAN (modify following text) ************************
\subsection{Application to German}
\subsubsection{Type}

The IMS-tagset considers the following 3 types of verbs:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\bf modals}: {\it m\"ussen, k\"onnen, d\"urfen, wollen, sollen,
m\"ogen\/}
\item {\bf auxiliaries}: {\it haben, sein, werden\/}
\item {\bf full verbs}: all other verbs
\end{itemize}

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-Type}
&{\it modal}     & wollen & {\bf VM}INF \\
\hline
&{\it auxiliar}  & haben  & {\bf VA}INF \\
\hline
&{\it full verb} & gehen  & {\bf VV}INF \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Finiteness, Verb-Form/Mood}

Finite and non-finite verb forms are not distinguished by a single
feature in the IMS-tagset.

Non-finite verb forms are {\em infinitive, past participles\/}.
Present participle forms are classified as adjectives.

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= das lachende/ADJA Kind \\
                 \> er kommt lachend/ADJD herein
\end{tabbing}


\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value} & example& tag\\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{4}{||l||}{\em Finite}\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-Form/Mood}
&{\it infinitive}          & k\"onnen   & VM{\bf INF} \\
&                          & gehen      & VV{\bf INF} \\
\hline
&{\it infinitive with}     & anzukommen & VV{\bf INFZU} \\
&{\it incorporated ``zu''} &&\\
\hline
&{\it past participle}     & gewesen    & VA{\bf PPF} \\
&                          & geliebt    & VV{\bf PPF} \\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{4}{||l||}{\em Non-Finite}\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-Form/Mood}
& {\it indicative}  & (er) geht & VV{\bf FIN}:3.Sg.Pres.{\bf Ind}\\
\hline
& {\it subjunctive} & (er) gehe & VV{\bf FIN}:3.Sg.Pres.{\bf Konj}\\
\hline
&{\it imperative}          & geh!       & VV{\bf IMP}:2.Pl \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Tense}

The feature {\em tense\/} applies only to finite verb forms (but not to
imperatives).  The values of tense reflect only synthetic tensed verb
forms, i.e. present tense ({\em Pr\"asens\/}) and simple past ({\em
  Pr\"ateritum\/}).  Compound tenses (eg. {\em ich habe gesehen\/}) are not
included.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense}
& {\it present} & (ich) gehe & VVFIN:1.Sg.{\bf Pres}.Ind\\
\hline
& {\it past}    & (ich) ging & VVFIN:1.Sg.{\bf Past}.Ind\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Person}

The feature {\em person\/} applies only to finite verb forms.

In the IMS-Tagset it is also added to imperatives, where it would not
be necessary since German imperatives exist only for 2nd person singular
and plural.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}
& {\it first}  & (ich) gehe & VVFIN:{\bf 1}.Sg.Pres.Ind\\
\hline
& {\it second} & (du) gehst & VVFIN:{\bf 2}.Sg.Pres.Ind\\
\hline
& {\it third}  & (er) geht  & VVFIN:{\bf 3}.Sg.Pres.Ind\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Number}

The feature {\em number\/} applies only to finite verb forms and
imperatives.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}
& {\it singular} & (ich) gehe & VVFIN:1.{\bf Sg}.Pres.Ind\\
&                & geh!       & VVIMP:2.{\bf Sg}.Pres.Ind\\
\hline
& {\it plural}   & (wir) gehen  & VVFIN:1.{\bf Pl}.Pres.Ind\\
&                & geht!        & VVIMP:2.{\bf Pl}.Pres.Ind\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender}

The feature {\em gender\/} does not apply to German verb forms. It occurs
only with participles which are used as adjectives (and will be tagged as
such).

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= er hat es getan/VVPPF \\
                 \> nach getaner/ADJA Arbeit
\end{tabbing}
\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}



English verbs have no Gender distinction. In addition, the deployment of the
 Person,
Number, Mood and Tense attributes is extremely limited.   In the past tense,
 there are
no distinctions of Person and Number, except for the solitary case of the verb
 {\em to
be}, which has a singular form {\em was} distinct from the plural form {\em
 were}.  In
the present tense, except again for the verb {\em to be}, only two forms of each
 verb
occur: the {\em -s} form in the third person singular, and the base form for all
 other
combinations of person and number.  These observations apply to the indicative
 mood.
As for the other moods (subjunctive and imperative), the subjunctive is rarely
 used,
and the imperative is invariable.  The subjunctive is also invariable, except
 for a
vestigial past subjunctive of the verb {\em to be}, in the singular use of {\em
 were}.
Because of extensive syncretism in the English verb, the historical paradigms of
Person, Number, Case, and Mood are barely sustainable in the description of
 modern
English.  The base form, if regarded as multi-functional, has at least the
 following
morphological functions for all verbs except {\em to be}:

(a) singular present tense indicative, 1st person \\
(b) singular present tense indicative, 2nd person \\
(c) plural present tense indicative \\
(d) imperative \\
(e) present tense subjunctive \\
(f) infinitive

Since it is impractical, however, given the current capabilities of tagging
 software, to
resolve automatically the ambiguity of these six morphological functions, it is
 a
common practice to assign a single value to the base form, or else to assign two
 values,
one for the finite and one for the non-finite functions.  Because of this, the
 tables below
show two tagsets: one tagset representing the 6 attribute-values above, and a
 reduced
tagset (``RTags"), which resembles most tagsets so far used for the English
 language in
reducing the six values to two.

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Type} & {\em Main} & eaten & VVPp & VVN \\
  & {\em Auxiliary} & has (eaten) & VP(Ind)PrS3 & VPZ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The value ``auxiliary verb" is not represented directly in the tagset, but is
 implied by the
use of VP (for primary auxiliaries) and VM (for modal auxiliaries). Alongside
 the
principal values of ``Main" and ``Auxiliary" verbs, it would have been useful to
 add a
third, intermediate category of ``semi-auxiliaries", for expressions such as
 {\em be
going to, have to, have got to,} and {\em be able to}.  However, for simplicity,
 this
category has been omitted from the tagset.

\subsubsection{Finiteness }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Finiteness} & {\em finite} & eats & VV(Ind)PrS3 & VVZ \\
 & {\em nonfinite} & eating & VVIng & VVG \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The values ``finite" and ``nonfinite" are not distinguished in the tagset, since
 they are
predictable from other values, viz.~those for ``verb-form" and for ``mood".


\subsubsection{Verb-form }

Two attributes in this description of English,
Verb-form and Mood, are derived from a single
attribute (Verb-form/Mood) used elsewhere in this document.
Verb-form applies only to
nonfinite
verbs, whereas Mood applies only to finite verbs:\\

\begin{tabular}{| l |  l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Verb-form} & {\em infinitive} & (to) eat & VVInf & VVI \\
 & {\em ing-form} & eating & VVIng & VVG \\
 & {\em past part.} & eaten & VVPp & VVN \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The value ``ing-form" applies to all verb forms ending in the inflectional
 suffix {\em -ing}.
In modern English, the distinction between present participle and gerund,
representing two different functions of the {\em -ing}-form, is difficult to
 draw and of
questionable validity. Consequently, tagsets for English generally treat the
{\em -ing} form as a unitary category.  This is a language-specific value for
 English.

\subsubsection{Mood }

This applies only to finite verbs.  The value ``indicative" can remain implicit
 in the
tagset, being the default or unmarked mood.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Mood} & {\em indicative} & eats & VV(Ind)PrS3 & VVZ \\
 & {\em subjunctive} & eat & VVSubPr & VVB \\
 & {\em imperative} & eat & VVImp & VVB \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Tense }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Tense } & {\em present} & (they) eat & VV(Ind)PrP & VVB \\
 & {\em past} & (they) ate & VV(Ind)Pa & VVD \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Person }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Person} & {\em 1st person} & (I) am & VP(Ind)PrS1 & VPM \\
 & {\em 2nd person} & (you) are & VP(Ind)PrS2 & VPR \\
 & {\em 3rd person} & (she) is & VP(Ind)PrS3 & VPZ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Number} & {\em singular} & was (eaten) & VP(Ind)PaS & VPDZ \\
 & {\em plural} & were (eaten) & VP(Ind)PaP & VPDR \\
\hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Auxiliary Type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags & RTags \\
\hline
{\bf Aux.Type} & {\em Primary} & had (eaten) & VPPa & VPD \\
 & {\em Modal} & would (eat) & VM  & VM \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The auxiliaries in English subdivide into the primary verbs {\em be, have}, and
{\em
do}, which can also function as main verbs, and the modal auxiliaries such as
 {\em can,
will,} and {\em would}, which are uninflected, and always function as
 auxiliaries.
These are language-specific values.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



The thirteen Inflectional Verb features distinguished in the CELEX Wordforms
lexical
database are represented twice, once separately as a Yes or No code and once in
combination, in a final composed `Flection Type' tag containing those features
which
received a Yes tag in four columns. For example: the word form with final
Flection
Type tag `te1s' received Yes four times, once for present tense (t), once for
singular (e),
once for first person (1) and once for separable word form (s).\\

\subsubsection{Verb-Type}

CELEX distinguishes four types of verbs. The first three (full verbs, modals and
auxiliaries) are the same as in the German application; the fourth is the
group of
impersonal verbs which have only one (impersonal) subject, `het'. Compare
French:
`il pleut' (pleuvoir).\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-Type        }&{\it full verb } & afwassen            &zelfst.\\
\hline
                     &{\it auxiliary} & hebben                &hulp.\\
\hline
                     &{\it modal    } & lijken                &koppel.\\
\hline
                     &{\it impersonal}& regenen               &onpers.\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
Note that many verbs are tagged with double or triple tags because they can have
two or three values.\\

\subsubsection{Verb-Form}

The CELEX Wordforms Lexicon distinguishes between {\it infinitive, present
participle,
past participle, finite\/} verb forms and some other forms.
\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-Form        }&{\it infinitive} & gaan               &i       \\
\hline
                     &{\it pres participle} & gaand             &pt    \\
\hline
                     &{\it past participle}& gegaan     & pv        \\
\hline
                     &{\it finite         } & (hij) gaat        &      \\
\hline
                     &{\it imperative     }& ga         & g         \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

See below  for other participle word forms.\\
\\
Finite verb forms are not marked as such, but the 14 present and
past tense Flection Type tags which are distinguished are all
finite verb forms.\\

As the degree of `language-specificness' of the
following
five distinctions is not clear, they are not classified as such.\\

\paragraph{Participle word forms}

The CELEX Wordforms Lexicon distinguishes three Present participle word forms
and
seven Past participle word forms. \\
{\it
\begin{verbatim}
pt       Present participle                      lopend
ptE      Present participle with suffix  e       lopende
ptEm     Pres.part. with suffix  e , plural(de)  lopenden
pv       Past participle                         gecoordineerd
pvC      Past participle Comparative             gecoordineerder
pvE      Past participle with suffix  e          gecoordineerde
pvEe     Idem of irregular verbs, singular       beschonkene
pvEm     Past participle with suffix e, plural   gedekoreerden
pvEs     Past part. with suffix e, separated     rond gezeilde
pvs      Past participle, separated              rond gezeild
\end{verbatim}
}

Only the Past and Present participle word forms `pt', `pv' and `pvs' are verbal
word
forms. However, they can also function as adjectives (and thus as adverbs) or nouns.
The
other Participle word forms are \underline{only} used as adjectives, adverbs or
nouns, so they can
be covered by adjectival, adverbial or nominal tags. From the perspective of
lemmatization,
however, it might be important to stress the verbal aspect of
participles, since,
as long
as participles are not yet `lexicalized' (accepted as real adjectives or nouns
with a
meaning of their own, differing from the meaning of the verb they are derived
from)
they do not have a lemma of their own, but are still to be lemmatized as words
deriving
from a \underline{verbal} lemma.\\

{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table !}

This table applies to the verb forms \underline{Infinitive, Present and
Past participle}.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Use (non-finite) }&{\it verbal    } & (hij heeft) geleerd&PartVerb\\
\hline
                    &{\it adjectival     }&(hij is) geleerd    &PartAdj\\
\hline
                     &{\it nominal        }& Leren (motivert)&Part/Nom\\
                     &                     & (Het) geleerde  &        \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}


\subsubsection{Mood}
The feature {\it mood\/} only applies to finite verb forms.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Mood          } & {\it indicative } & (hij) gaat    &         \\
\hline
                     &{\it subjunctive}& kome (wat komt)  &a       \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The {\it Indicative\/} is not marked as such, most of the finite verb forms
being indicative.
Only the few subjunctive verb forms have a special tag: `a'. In Dutch the
subjunctive
only occurs in the third person singular. Phrases containing subjunctive verb
forms
mostly belong to the written language and possess an archaic or idiomatic quality.
The
subjunctive generally occurs in the Present tense. Only one Past tense
form remains
(ware).\\

\subsubsection{Tense}

In the CELEX Wordforms Lexicon the feature Tense applies to finite verb forms
and to
participle verb forms. There are 10 different Present tense tags and ~4
different Past
tense tags. All of them are composed tags starting with `t' (Present time) or
`v' (Past
time). See also the list of Present and Past participle tags above.\\
\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense         } & {\it present    } & (ik) ga       & t{\bf  }\\
\hline
                     &{\it past      }& (ik) ging        &v{\bf  }\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}


\subsubsection{Person}

The three different person-values are only distinguished in the
\underline{Present tense
singular}. Present tense plural has only one verb form for the 1st, 2nd and
3rd person.\\
The Past tense has one singular verb form and one plural verb form. The
person-tags
`1', `2' and `3' always appear in a composed Flection Type tag starting with:
`te' (present
tense singular).\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person        } & {\it first      } & (ik) ga       & te{\bf 1}\\
\hline
                     &{\it second    }& (jij) gaat        &te{\bf 2}\\
                     &                & ga (jij)          &te{\bf 2}I\\
\hline
                     &{\it third     }& (hij) gaat        &te{\bf 3}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

See above the feature {\it Inversion}.

\subsubsection{Number}

The number-tags `e' and `m' always appear in a composed Flection Type tag in
combination with `t' (Present tense) or `v' (Past tense).\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number        } & {\it singular   } & (ik) ga       & t{\bf e}\\
                     &                   & (ik) ging     & v{\bf e}\\
\hline
                     &{\it plural    }& (wij) gaan        &t{\bf m}\\
                     &                & (wij) gingen      &v{\bf m}I\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

\subsubsection{Gender}

The feature gender does not apply to Dutch verb forms. It occurs only in
Present and
Past participles used as nouns or as adjectives. In these cases gender will have
to be
determined from the context (Attribute value {\it context\/} of the Gender table in
nouns).\\

\subsubsection{Main-Verb Function}

CELEX also distinguishes subcategorization values in full verbs (called
`lexical' verbs).
The three possible values are intransitive, transitive and reflexive.\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Main-Verb Funct. }&{\it intransit } & vallen             &intrans.\\
\hline
                     &{\it transit  } & kopen                 &trans.\\
\hline
                     &{\it reflex   } & vergissen             &wederk.\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

\subsubsection{Auxiliary}

Another syntactical verb feature tagged in the Lemmas Lexicon is the type of
auxiliary with which
a verb is conjugated. There are three tags:\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Auxiliary        }&{\it hebben    } & doen               &hebben  \\
\hline
                     &{\it zijn     } & groeien               &zijn  \\
\hline
                     &{\it hebben or zijn} & volgen     &hebben/zijn\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

Note that many verbs are tagged with double or triple tags because they can have
two or three values. This is the common Dutch
dictionary practice to mark verb use.\\



\subsubsection{Other Verb-Form features}

In the CELEX Lemmas and Wordforms Lexica two further important verbal features have
been tagged: {\it separability\/} and {\it inversion\/}. Another
feature, {\it word order\/}, is
distinguished in the other CELEX database mentioned above. In Dutch
different
word order brings about different word forms in the case of separable verbs.\\


\subsubsection{Separability}
This is tagged in the Syntactical part of the Lemmas Lexicon
with a Yes or
No tag and in the Wordforms Lexicon with an `s' in the composed final Flection
Type
tag:\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Separability} & {\it separable} & geef aan & te1{\bf s}\\
                   &                 & geeft aan & te2{\bf s}\\
                   &                 & geeft aan & te3{\bf s}\\
                   &                 & geven aan & tm{\bf s}\\
                   &                 & gaf   aan & ve{\bf s}\\
                   &                 & gaven aan & vm{\bf s}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

Separable verbal word forms have a verbal and a non-verbal part and may occur at
different places in the sentence. So another solution (in terms of corpus
linguistics)
would be to tag the \underline{verbal} part as a separable verb form and the
\underline{prepositional} part as
the non-verbal part of a separable verb, this last feature becoming a value of
Adpositions.\\

\subsubsection{Inversion}
This occurs in interrogative phrases and only brings about a
different word
form in the Present tense singular, second person. It is an inflectional feature
tagged
in the Wordforms Lexicon with an `I'.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Inversion} & {\it inverted} & ga (jij)?& te2{\bf I}\\
                   &                 & geef (jij) aan & te2{\bf Is}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

te2{\bf I}= present tense, singular, second person, inverted wordform \\
te2{\bf I}s= present tense, singular, second person, inverted and separable
wordform\\

The inversion tag is important from the point of view of disambiguation,
since the
inverted form of the \underline{second} person singular Present tense is the
same as the non-inverted form of the \underline{first} person singular
Present tense!\\
\\
\subsubsection{Word order separable verbs}

This distinction comes from a CELEX database; the tag is proposed by
the Dutch correspondent.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Word order - sep.verb} & {\it main clause} & (hij) geeft aan& ..MC\\
\hline
                     &{\it sub-clause}&(dat hij) aangeeft & ..SC \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

Instances of separable verbs are written together in sub-clauses and written
separately
in main clauses!\\

\subsubsection{Politeness}

Politeness is not represented in the CELEX tag sets. In Dutch polite verb forms
correspond to the 2nd person singular and plural. The personal pronoun
expressing
politeness is: `U'.


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Spanish}

\subsubsection{Verb-Form and Mood}

In Eurotra's terminology Verb-form corresponds to the attribute
``e\_mstype" and its organization is as follows:

\vspace*{.8cm}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf e\_mstype & \it finite & cantamos & finite\\\hline
 & \it infinitive & cantar & infin\\\hline
 & \it gerund & cantando & gerund\\\hline
 & \it pastpart & cantado & pastpart\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{.8cm}

As for Mood (``e\_mood" in Eurotra) we have three possible values:

\vspace{.8cm}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf e\_mood &\it indicative &  canto &  indicative\\\hline
& \it subjunctive & cantase & subjunctive\\\hline
& \it imperative & canta & imperative\\\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace*{.8cm}

It is not difficult to redistribute this organization so that it
follows the strategy suggested in the present proposal:

\vspace*{.8cm}

\begin{tabular}{||c||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
\bf Attribute&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\it value}&  ex.&  tag\\
\hline \hline
\bf Verb-Form&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\it finite}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       \bf Attribute&\it value&  example&  tag\\
\hline \hline
          & \bf Mood&\it indicative &canto  &\\
\hline
             &     &\it subjunctive&cantase&\\
\hline
          &     &\it imperative&canta  & \\
\hline
\bf Verb-Form&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\it non-finite}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       \bf Attribute&\it value&  example&  tag\\
\hline \hline
         & \bf Mood&\it infinitive & cantar  &  \\
\hline
          &      &\it gerund     & cantando &\\
\hline
          &      &\it pastpart     & cantado   &     \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Tense}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
   \bf Tense & \it present& canto&\\\hline
   & \it past& cant\'{e}&\\\hline
   &\it imperative&canta&\\\hline
   &\it future&cantar\'{e}&\\\hline
   &\it conditional&cantar\'{i}a&\\\hline
\end{tabular}
\\
\\
A controversial point here concerns the interpretation of
conditionals as tenses, in contrast to how they are usually considered in
traditional grammars. This treatment is based on the assumption that the
conditionals have a temporal value that correponds to a ``future of
the past".\\


``Compound tenses", as in Italian, are formed with an auxiliary.

\subsubsection{Person}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline \hline
  \bf Person & \it first & (yo) como &\\\hline
& \it second &(tu) comes&\\\hline
&\it third&(el) come&\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf Number & \it singular & (yo) como & sing\\\hline
 & \it plural  & (ellos) comen & plu\\\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l|l||}\hline\hline
\bf Attribute & \it Value & Example & Tag\\\hline\hline
\bf Gender & \it feminine & cansada & fem\\\hline
 & \it masculine & cansado & masc\\\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace*{.8cm}

Gender is only pertinent to past participle forms.


\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

%--------
\subsubsection{Type}

The IBMF tagset has special tags for the two auxiliaries, {\it avoir}
and {\it \^{e}tre}, otherwise similar (indication of person only) to the
VERB tag used for ``main" verbs. The distinction between the two auxiliaries
would require a tagset-specific tag in EAGLES, or a special feature
LU= indicating the exact lexical unit considered.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}     &  Example          & Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Type}        &    {\it main   }   &  lisait           & VERB3       \\
\hline
                    &    {\it auxiliary} &  avait, \'{e}tait & AUXA3, AUXE3 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Finiteness and Verb-Form/Mood}

As in the case of Italian, there is no specific encoding for
the finiteness feature, which is self-contained in the mood information.

In French, the word forms allow for much of the disambiguation
between moods, tenses, etc.  When there is ambiguity (e.g. between
present indicative and present subjunctive),
the type of modelling involved with the IBMF tagset (i.e. stochastic
tri-pos) would be unable to decide anyway.
This is why the IBMF tagset does not distinguish all main moods/tenses,
only Infinitive, Participle, and the rest (tag VERB).\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}      &  Example        &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Verb-Form}     &    {\it indicative} &  (je) lis       & {\bf VERB}1  \\
                    &    {\it subjunctive}&                 &    "         \\
                    &    {\it imperative} &                 &    "         \\
                    &    {\it conditional}&                 &    "         \\
\hline
                    &    {\it infinitive} &  lire           & VINF         \\
\hline
                    &    {\it participle} &  lu             & {\bf P}PASMS \\
\hline
                    &    {\it gerund}     &  -              & -            \\
\hline
                    &    {\it supine}     &  -              & -            \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Tense}

Only in the case of participles is the present/past distinction made
in the IBMF tagset.

Assuming we already have set Fin={\it non-finite} and VFM={\it part}:\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}   &  Example        &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Tense}         &    {\it present} &  lisant         & P{\bf PRE}   \\
\hline
                    &    {\it past   } &  lu             & P{\bf PAS}MS \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Person}

In the IBMF tagset, the person is numbered 1 to 6, thus avoiding the
need for number information. The coding of an IBMF verb tag into the EAGLES
scheme would therefore imply using both the Person and Number attributes.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} &  {\it value}   &  Example            &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Person}    &  {\it 1} &  (je) vais, (nous) allons & VERB{\bf 1}, VERB{\bf
 4} \\
\hline
                &  {\it 2} &  (tu) vas, (vous) allez   & VERB{\bf 2}, VERB{\bf
 5} \\
\hline
                &  {\it 3} &  (il) va, (ils) vont      & VERB{\bf 3}, VERB{\bf
 6} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Gender}

In French, gender is only marked in the past participle.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute} &  {\it value}     &  Example    &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}    &  {\it masculine} &  ferm\'{e}s & PPAS{\bf M}P \\
\hline
                &  {\it feminine}  &  ferm\'{e}e & PPAS{\bf F}S \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Number}

As mentioned for the {\bf Person} attribute,
the coding of an IBMF verb tag into the EAGLES
scheme implies combining Person and Number attributes in EAGLES.

Otherwise, number is used only for Past participles in the IBMF tagset.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute} &  {\it value}    &  Example    &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Number}    &  {\it singular} &  ferm\'{e}  & PPASM{\bf S} \\
\hline
                &  {\it plural}   &  ferm\'{e}s & PPASM{\bf P} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Separability} does not apply to French.
{\bf Voice} and {\bf Reflexivity} are not marked as such in the verb form
(they are built by adjunction of auxiliary or pronoun).
{\bf Auxiliary} would apply in French since all verbs build their compound
forms with one of the two auxiliaries already mentioned.

These and other features (Main-verb fuction, auxiliary function)
are not coded in the IBMF tagset.

%--------
\subsubsection{IBMF Tagset features not applicable in EAGLES}

The specification of the exact lexical unit for the auxiliary
(tags AUXA AUXE, see above).
\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         main        partir       m
             auxiliary   avoir        a
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Finiteness}

Finiteness is redundant with mood in French, as shown in the table
below:
\begin{verbatim}
------------ -----------
Verb Form/M. Finiteness
------------ -----------
indicative   finite
subjunctive  finite
imperative   finite
conditional  finite
infinitive   non-finite
participle   non-finite
------------ -----------
\end{verbatim}

We therefore decided not to encode it.


\subsubsection{Verb Form/Mood}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Verb Form/M. indicative  viens        i
             subjunctive vienne       s
             imperative  viens        m
             conditional viendrais    c
             infinitive  venir        n
             participle  venu         p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Tense}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Tense        present     viens        p
             imperfect   venais       i
             future      viendrai     f
             past        vins         s
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


\subsubsection{Person}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Person       first       suis        1
             second      es          2
             third       est         3
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    viens       s
             plural      venons      p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   venu        m
             feminine    venue       f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- ------------------------
Tag       Example
--------- ------------------------
V1-s-ip-m viens
V2-s-ip-m viens
V3-s-ip-m vient
V1-p-ip-m venons
V2-p-ip-m venez
V3-p-ip-m viennent
V1-s-ii-m venais
V2-s-ii-m venais
V3-s-ii-m venait
V1-p-ii-m venions
V2-p-ii-m veniez
V3-p-ii-m venaient
V1-s-if-m viendrai
V2-s-if-m viendras
V3-s-if-m viendra
V1-p-if-m viendrons
V2-p-if-m viendrez
V3-p-if-m viendront
V1-s-is-m vins
V2-s-is-m vins
V3-s-is-m vint
V1-p-is-m vinmes
V2-p-is-m vintes
V3-p-is-m vinrent
V1-s-ip-a suis, ai
V2-s-ip-a es, as
V3-s-ip-a est, a
V1-p-ip-a sommes, avons
V2-p-ip-a etes, avez
V3-p-ip-a sont, ont
V1-s-ii-a etais, avais
V2-s-ii-a etais, avais
V3-s-ii-a etait, avait
V1-p-ii-a etions, avions
V2-p-ii-a etiez, aviez
V3-p-ii-a etaient, avaient
V1-s-if-a serai, aurai
V2-s-if-a seras, auras
V3-s-if-a sera, aura
V1-p-if-a serons, aurons
V2-p-if-a serez, aurez
V3-p-if-a seront, auront
V1-s-is-a fus, eus
V2-s-is-a fus, eus
V3-s-is-a fut, eut
V1-p-is-a fumes, eumes
V2-p-is-a futes, eutes
V3-p-is-a furent, eurent
V1-s-sp-m finisse
V2-s-sp-m finisse
V3-s-sp-m finisse
V1-p-sp-m finissions
V2-p-sp-m finissiez
V3-p-sp-m finissent
V1-s-si-m finisse
V2-s-si-m finisse
V3-s-si-m finit
V1-p-si-m finissions
V2-p-si-m finissiez
V3-p-si-m finissent
V1-s-sp-a sois, aie
V2-s-sp-a sois, aies
V3-s-sp-a soit, ait
V1-p-sp-a soyons, ayons
V2-p-sp-a soyez, ayez
V3-p-sp-a soient, aient
V1-s-si-a fusse, eusse
V2-s-si-a fusses, eusses
V3-s-si-a fut, eut
V1-p-si-a fussions, eussions
V2-p-si-a fussiez, eussiez
V3-p-si-a fussent, eussent
V2-s-mp-m viens
V1-p-mp-m venons
V2-p-mp-m venez
V2-s-mp-a sois, aie
V1-p-mp-a soyons, ayons
V2-p-mp-a soyez, ayez
V1-s-cp-m viendrais
V2-s-cp-m viendrais
V3-s-cp-m viendrait
V1-p-cp-m viendrions
V2-p-cp-m viendriez
V3-p-cp-m viendraient
V1-s-cp-a serais, aurais
V2-s-cp-a serais, aurais
V3-s-cp-a serait, aurait
V1-p-cp-a serions, aurions
V2-p-cp-a seriez, auriez
V3-p-cp-a seraient, auraient
V----n--m venir
V----n--a etre, avoir
V-ms-ps-m venu
V-fs-ps-m venue
V-mp-ps-m venus
V-fp-ps-m venues
V-ms-ps-a eu
V-fs-ps-a eue
V-mp-ps-a eus
V-fp-ps-a eues
V----pp-m venant
V----pp-a etant, ayant
V----ps-m semble'
V----ps-a ete'
--------- ------------------------
\end{verbatim}


Note:\\

We have decided to encode the past participle of the auxiliary verb \^{e}tre,
the copulative verbs (sembler etc.) and the impersonal verbs (e.g. falloir),
with the ``not applicable" feature (-) instead of the ``neutral" or ``masculine"
 one.
The notion of neutrality, though used for pronouns in the present
model, is not a very traditional notion in French grammars and in any case
the neutral feature does not bring any further information than the not
applicable one.
As for the masculine feature, syntactic considerations led us
to drop it in order to maintain consistent agreement marks inside a sentence.
\newpage


\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

The following set of morphological features are pertinent to Verbs in the
Portuguese model GENELEX: Mood, Tense, Person, Gender, Number.
The generation of the inflected forms of a given verb system is based
on the various combinations of these features.   Some features
are not pertinent to the characterization of some wordforms, as we will try
to explain below.\\


\subsubsection{Type}

The value {\it auxiliar} is not encoded in the morphological layer of the
Portuguese model of GENELEX, but it is required on its syntactic layer,
where it is applied to the verbs {\it ter} and {\it haver}. The value
{\it auxiliar} is therefore pertinent to the Portuguese language.

\subsubsection{Finiteness}

This feature can be unproblematically inferred from the feature Mood,
as the schema below clearly shows. The redundant application of
these two features to Portuguese could be represented as follows:\\

\begin{verbatim}
---------------------- -----------------------
Verb Form/Mood                  Finiteness
---------------------- -----------------------
indicative                      finite
subjunctive                     finite
imperative                      finite
conditional                     finite
infinitive                      non-finite
participle                      non-finite
---------------------- -----------------------
\end{verbatim}

The feature Finiteness is therefore not required by the Portuguese language.

\subsubsection{Mood}

From the values proposed for Mood, the following values are used in the
Portuguese application:

\begin{verbatim}
------------- --------------- ------------- ----------
Attribute       Value            Example     Tag
------------- --------------- ------------- ----------
Mood            indicative       como
                subjunctive      coma
                imperative       come
                conditional      comeria
                infinitive       comer
                participle       comido
                supine
------------- --------------- ------------- ----------
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Tense}

Given that Plus-quam-Perfect is also a simple tense in the
Portuguese language, we stress the need for integrating a specific value for
this tense, so that the relevant simple wordforms can be handled in morphology.

\begin{verbatim}
------------- ------------------------ -------------- ------------
Attribute           Value                Example        Tag
------------- ------------------------ -------------- ------------
Tense               present              como
                    imperfect            comia
                    perfect              comi
                    future               comerei
                    past                 comido
============= ======================== ============== ============
l_spec              plus_quam_perfect    comera
------------- ------------------------ -------------- ------------
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Person}

The values proposed in the tables are pertinent to Portuguese.
However, in order to cope with typical aspects of Politeness reflected in verbal
inflection, the GENELEX model built for the Portuguese language made
a particular use of this attribute - instead of a feature {\it person},
a decomposition of this is used: {\it person-deixis} and {\it person-conc}.
Since in Portuguese polite verb forms correspond to the 3rd person, these two
features allow an enhanced specification of verbal wordforms where the value
`person=3' could give rise to ambiguity (remark that ambiguity may be not
solved by context, because in Portuguese you can drop the np subject.)

In the GENELEX application such verbal wordforms (e.g. {\it come} (`eats' or
`eat')) are thus marked in two ways: polite verbal wordforms (as in `voce'2
{\it come}' (`you eat')) bear the combination of values `person-deixis=2'
and `person-conc=3'; true `person=3' wordforms (as in `ele {\it come}'
(`he eats')) bear the combination of values `person-deixis=3' and
 `person-conc=3'.

\subsubsection{Gender}

This feature is pertinent only to the Mood {\it participle}.

\begin{verbatim}
----------- --------------- --------------- ------------------
Attribute       Value           Example        Tag
----------- --------------- --------------- ------------------
Gender          masculine       comido
                feminine        comida
                neuter
                common
----------- --------------- --------------- ------------------
\end{verbatim}

Only the values {\it masculine} and {\it feminine} are used.



\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------- ------------- ------------ ---------------------
Attribute       Value          Example      Tag
------------- ------------- ------------ ---------------------
Number          singular       como
                plural         comemos
                invariant
------------- ------------- ------------ ---------------------
\end{verbatim}

This has only two values, {\it singular} and {\it plural}.\\


\subsubsection{Combination of features}

In the GENELEX application, Portuguese verbs have a maximum of 91 different
inflected wordforms derived from different combinations of morphological
features for simple morphological units (i.e. excluding compound forms).\\
They are the following:\\

\begin{verbatim}
-----------------  ---------------------------
                     Example
-----------------  ---------------------------
01 Ind-Pr-1-1---S    como
02 Ind-Pr-2-2---S    comes
03 Ind-Pr-2-3---S    come
04 Ind-Pr-3-3---S    come
05 Ind-Pr-1-1---P    comemos
06 Ind-Pr-2-2---P    comeis
07 Ind-Pr-2-3---P    comem
08 Ind-Pr-3-3---P    comem
09 Ind-Im-1-1---S    comia
10 Ind-Im-2-2---S    comias
11 Ind-Im-2-3---S    comia
12 Ind-Im-3-3---S    comia
13 Ind-Im-1-1---P    comi'1amos
14 Ind-Im-2-2---P    comi'1eis
15 Ind-Im-2-3---P    comiam
16 Ind-Im-3-3---P    comiam
17 Ind-Fu-1-1---S    comerei
18 Ind-Fu-2-2---S    comera'1s
19 Ind-Fu-2-3---S    comera'1
20 Ind-Fu-3-3---S    comera'1
21 Ind-Fu-1-1---P    comeremos
22 Ind-Fu-2-2---P    comereis
23 Ind-Fu-2-3---P    comera'3o
24 Ind-Fu-3-3---P    comera'3o
25 Ind-Pa-1-1---S    comi
26 Ind-Pa-2-2---S    comeste
27 Ind-Pa-2-3---S    comeu
28 Ind-Pa-3-3---S    comeu
29 Ind-Pa-1-1---P    comemos
30 Ind-Pa-2-2---P    comestes
31 Ind-Pa-2-3---P    comeram
32 Ind-Pa-3-3---P    comeram
33 Ind-Pq-1-1---S    comera
34 Ind-Pq-2-2---S    comeras
35 Ind-Pq-2-3---S    comera
36 Ind-Pq-3-3---S    comera
37 Ind-Pq-1-1---P    come'2ramos
38 Ind-Pq-2-2---P    come'2reis
39 Ind-Pq-2-3---P    comeram
40 Ind-Pq-3-3---P    comeram
41 Con-Pr-1-1---S    comeria
42 Con-Pr-2-2---S    comerias
43 Con-Pr-2-3---S    comeria
44 Con-Pr-3-3---S    comeria
45 Con-Pr-1-1---P    comeri'1amos
46 Con-Pr-2-2---P    comeri'1eis
47 Con-Pr-2-3---P    comeriam
48 Con-Pr-3-3---P    comeriam
49 Sub-Pr-1-1---S    coma
50 Sub-Pr-2-2---S    comas
51 Sub-Pr-2-3---S    coma
52 Sub-Pr-3-3---S    coma
53 Sub-Pr-1-1---P    comamos
54 Sub-Pr-2-2---P    comais
55 Sub-Pr-2-3---P    comam
56 Sub-Pr-3-3---P    comam
57 Sub-Im-1-1---S    comesse
58 Sub-Im-2-2---S    comesses
59 Sub-Im-2-3---S    comesse
60 Sub-Im-3-3---S    comesse
61 Sub-Im-1-1---P    come'2ssemos
62 Sub-Im-2-2---P    come'2sseis
63 Sub-Im-2-3---P    comessem
64 Sub-Im-3-3---P    comessem
65 Sub-Fu-1-1---S    comer
66 Sub-Fu-2-2---S    comeres
67 Sub-Fu-2-3---S    comer
68 Sub-Fu-3-3---S    comer
69 Sub-Fu-1-1---P    comermos
70 Sub-Fu-2-2---P    comerdes
71 Sub-Fu-2-3---P    comerem
72 Sub-Fu-3-3---P    comerem
73 Imp----2-2---S    come
74 Imp----2-3---S    coma
75 Imp----1-1---P    comamos
76 Imp----2-2---P    comei
77 Imp----2-3---P    comam
78 Inf----1-1---S    comer
79 Inf----2-2---S    comeres
80 Inf----2-3---S    comer
81 Inf----3-3---S    comer
82 Inf----1-1---P    comermos
83 Inf----2-2---P    comerdes
84 Inf----2-3---P    comerem
85 Inf----3-3---P    comerem
86 Inf-----------    comer
87 Par-Ps-----M-S    comido
88 Par-Ps-----F-S    comida
89 Par-Ps-----M-P    comidos
90 Par-Ps-----F-P    comidas
91 Ger-----------    comendo
\end{verbatim}


We stress that there is no need to define any specification labelling
the typically Portuguese `inflected infinitive'. In fact, it is suitably
handled by combining `mood=infinitive' with the values of
attributes `number' and `person' (the last is decomposed in the Portuguese
GENELEX model, as we explained under the subsection `Person' above).


\subsubsection{Clitics}

This feature is pertinent to Portuguese verbs, but the assignment of
a feature concerning clitics to verbs depends on the syntactic
classification of the verb.

For the time being, verbs are not yet encoded wrt clitics in the Portuguese
GENELEX morphological layer.
\newpage

\subsection{Application to Danish}

%Text in ASCII
In Danish, the verbal system comprises a very limited number of inflectional
forms. There is no morphological distinction for person and number; moods and
tenses are limited as well. Thus, the set of morphological features pertinent to
Danish verbs are: Type, Tense, Mood (distinction between indicative and
 imperative only) and Voice (distinction of active and -s passive).\\

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}   & {\it Main} &  skriver    & vb\_{\bf mainv}    \\
\hline
         & {\it Auxiliary}  & har (skrevet)    & vb\_{\bf aux} \\
\hline
         & {\it Passive auxiliary}  & bliver (skrevet)   & vb\_{\bf auxpass} \\
\hline
         & {\it Modal}  & skulle (skrive)    & vb\_{\bf modv} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

%Text in ASCII
The type `passive auxiliary' can be regarded as a language-specific feature; in
 Danish passive forms can be generated by means of the morphological suffix
 `-(e)s'
or by means of the passive auxiliaries `blive' and `vaere', respectively. This
 feature
is used within the EDEMD.\\

\subsubsection{Finiteness}

%Text in ASCII
In general, the finiteness is implicitly given by the particular tag of the
 verb-form occuring in the corpus, e.g. `skriver' is indicative present active
which is a finite form. Thus, in corpus tagging the distinction
 finite/non-finite is not needed. However, in the Eurotra description of Danish
 finite and non-finite forms have been distinguished.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Finiteness} & {\it finite} & skriver & vb\_{\bf pres\_act}\\
\hline
           & {\it non-finite}  & skrivende  & vb\_{\bf pres\_ptc}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


\subsubsection{Verb-form}

%Text in ASCII
Here we follow the tagging for English: the attribute Verb-form  applies to
 non-finite verb forms, Mood applies to finite verb forms only.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Verb-form} & {\it infinitive} & skrive & vb\_{\bf inf}\\
\hline
       & {\it perfect participle} & skrevet & vb\_{\bf pf.ptc}\\
\hline
    & {\it present participle} & skrivende & vb\_{\bf pres.ptc}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

% Text in ASCII
A perfect participle remains uninflected when used in verbal function; in
 adjectival (attributive) function perfect participle forms are inflected like
 adjectives (without inflectional comparison).\\

\subsubsection{Mood}

%Text in ASCII
In corpus tagging the mood `indicative' will be left unmarked, because this is
 the most frequently used - and thus the default - mood in texts. In
corpora a few archaic examples of other moods do occur (e.g. subjunctive)
but they are not taken into account here because of their very low
frequency.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Mood}  & {\it indicative} & (vi) skriver & vb\_pres\_{\bf  ind}\\
\hline
            & {\it imperative}  & skriv   & vb\_{\bf imp} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Tense}
%Text in ASCII

Compound tenses (e.g. auxiliary + past participle for past tenses) are not
 included.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense}   & {\it present} &  (de) skriver    & vb\_{\bf pres}\\
\hline
               & {\it past}  &  (du) skrev  &  vb\_{\bf past}\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\subsubsection{Number}

In modern Danish, there is no difference between singular and plural
 verb-forms.\\

\subsubsection{Person}

In modern Danish, there is full syncretism within the person paradigm of
 verb-forms, i.e. one single morphological form covers all Person + Number
 combinations of a given tense/mood. Therefore, the attributes Number and Person
 are not applied to Danish verbs. In a corpus a few archaic
 forms of the
plural may occur.\\

\subsubsection{Gender}

Danish verbs have no Gender distinction.\\


\subsubsection{language-specific feature: Voice}

In Danish, there is a morphological difference between active and passive forms
 in the present and the past. (The inflectional ending of the passive is always {\bf
 -(e)s}.) Passive forms can also be composed by means of an auxiliary  ({\bf
 auxpass}) + perfect participle. Perfect participle forms of a few verbs may
 also
occur as -(e)s passive forms.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Voice}   & {\it active} &  skriver  & vb\_pres\_{\bf act}\\
\hline
     & {\it -s passive}  & skrives  &  vb\_pres\_{\bf s-pas} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
%------------------------------------------

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%% VERBS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



\newpage


\subsection{Application to Greek}


Potentially, Greek verbal entries are characterised for the
following features: Finiteness, Verb-form/Mood, Tense, Person,
Number, Gender, Aspect, Voice.\\

Depending on the combination of these features, all inflected
forms of the Greek verbal system can be generated. The
combination of the features is dependent upon constraints,
resulting, in certain cases, in the total absence of certain
features or the exclusion of certain values. More information on
these constraints is given in the following sections.\\

The Greek verbal system presents both simple and compound forms.
Compound forms are the result of two different combinations:\\

- two verbs, the auxiliary and the main verb (the main verb is
in the ``infinitival" or past participial form) for the formation
of certain tenses,\\

- a particle and the verb, for the formation of the subjunctive
mood and the conditional tenses.\\

In the following tables, compound forms are put in parentheses,
and no tag is given for them as their recognition would require
a multi-word tagger.\\




\subsubsection{Type}

This feature is not currently coded in the Greek Morphological
Lexicon.  However, it can be applied to the Greek language. In
this case, the table of the attribute-value set could take the
following form:\\




\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it main}& ghrafw & -\\
\hline
              & {\it aux}& ehw    & -\\
\hline
              & {\it cop}& eimai    & -\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\vspace{15mm}




The verb ``eimai" in Greek acts as a main, copular or auxiliary
verb. In the majority of the cases, the linguistic context
contributes to the resolution of the ambiguity:\\

\begin{center}

      {\it To vivlio einai {\bf panw} sto trapezi} (prep. - main)\\
      {\it To vivlio einai {\bf teleiwmeno}} (past. part. - aux)\\
      {\it To vivlio einai {\bf katharo}} (adj. - cop.)\\

\end{center}

The verb ``ehw" acts both as an auxiliary and as a main verb.
Again, the linguistic context serves for disambiguation
purposes:\\


\begin{center}

      {\it O Ghiannys ehei {\bf spiti}} (noun - main)\\
      {\it O Ghiannys ehei {\bf teleiwsei}} (inf. - aux)\\

\end{center}




\subsubsection{Finiteness and Verb-Form/Mood}

In its present form, the Greek Morphological Lexicon does not
code the feature {\bf Finiteness}, while the features {\it
Verb-Form} and {\it Mood} are kept distinct, the first one
taking as values {\it finite} and {\it participle}, and the
latter {\it indicative} and {\it imperative}. However, a
combination of these two features gives information on
finiteness. Apart from participles, all other simple forms in
Greek are finite and may take the values {\it indicative} and
{\it imperative} as regards mood.\\

(For the formation of the subjunctive mood a compound form is
used, as presented in the following table.)\\


The application of the features {\it finiteness} and {\it
verb-form/mood} to Greek can be represented as follows:\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it value}}& Gr. ex.& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Finiteness}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it non-finite}}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       {\bf Attribute}&{\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
          &      &{\it participle} &eisaghomenos &Vb{\bf Pp}\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Finiteness}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{{\it finite}}&   -   & -    \\
\hline \hline
&       {\bf Attribute}&{\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
          & {\bf Verb-Form/Mood}&{\it indicative} &eisaghw &VbFi{\bf Id}\\
\hline
          &     &{\it imperative}&ghrapse  &VbFi{\bf Mp} \\
\hline
          &     &{\it subjunctive}&(na ghrapsw)  & - \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Although there exists one ``infinitival" form in Greek, it is not
used as a value, given that it is only used for the generation
of certain compound tenses and cannot be found on its own; this
form is morphologically the same as the third person singular
used for the formation of the future tense or the subjunctive
mood (again formed periphrastically, with the combination of a
particle):\\


\begin{center}

      {\it O Ghiannys tha {\bf teleiwsei}} (future - untns 3rd sing.)\\
      {\it O Ghiannys ehei {\bf teleiwsei}} (pres.perf. - inf.)\\

\end{center}



\subsubsection{Tense}

The tense system in Greek is traditionally perceived as similar
to the one described for Romance languages. However, in the
current codification system we have adopted a system more
similar to the English one. Thus the system is based on a
combination of the {\it Tense} and {\it Aspect} features (for
{\it Aspect}, see relevant section). Further constraints are
applied to this attribute by the value of the mood. The tense
system in Greek includes both simple and compound forms.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense}    & {\it pres}& ghrafw & VbFiId{\bf Pr}\\
\hline
              & {\it past}& eghrapsa & VbFiId{\bf Pa}\\
\hline
              & {\it fut}& (tha ghrapsw) & -\\
\hline
  l-spec      & {\it untns}& ghrapsei & VbFiId{\bf Un}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\vspace{15mm}


The value {\it untns}, specific to Greek, is used for the
codification in the Lexicon of the ``infinitival" form of the
verb, a form which, as already presented, never appears on its own
but is used for the formation of compound tenses. It is also
used for the form that combined with the appropriate particle
forms the future tense and the subjunctive mood.\\




\subsubsection{Person}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
Person & 1 & ghrafw & VbFiIdPr{\bf 01}\\
\hline
       & 2 & ghrafeis & VbFiIdPr{\bf 02}\\
\hline
       & 3 & ghrafei & VbFiIdPr{\bf 03}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

For the codification of the ``infinitival" form (e.g. {\it
ghrapsei}), the value of Person is left unspecified, given that
the person of the compound form is provided by the auxiliary
verb:\\

\begin{center}

{\it O Ghiannys eh{\bf ei} fughei.} - 3rd person\\
{\it Eh{\bf w} fughei.} - 1st person\\

\end{center}

The value is left unspecified for the participial forms as well.\\


\subsubsection{Number}



This has only two values, {\it singular} and {\it plural}.\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number} & {\it singular} & ghrafw & VbFiIdPr01{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
       & {\it plural} & ghrafoume & VbFiIdPr01{\bf Pl}\\
\hline
       & {\it invariant}&       -              &  - \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

The attribute of Number is left unspecified for the
``infinitival" form, because the number of the compound form is
marked on the auxiliary verb:

\begin{center}

{\it O Ghiannys eh{\bf ei} fughei.} - singular\\
{\it Oloi eh{\bf oun} fughei.} - plural\\
\end{center}




\subsubsection{Gender}

This feature applies only when the value of finiteness is marked
as {\it participle}. Participles in Greek behave as adjectives,
and thus agree in gender, number and case with the nouns they
modify. Therefore, apart from the value {\it masc-fem}, which
does not apply here, all values are those presented in the
section on nouns, and are shown in the following table:\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& eisaghwn (act. part.)& VbPpPrSg{\bf Ma}\\
              &                & eisaghomenos (pass.pr. part)&
              VbPpPrSg{\bf Ma}\\
              &               & eisahtheis (pass.past. part)&VbPPPaSg{\bf Ma}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}& eisaghousa (act. part.) & VbPpPrSg{\bf Fe} \\
              &            & eisaghomeny (pass. pr. part.) & VbPpPrSg{\bf Fe}\\
              &               & eisahtheisa (pass.past part.) &
               VbPpPaSg{\bf Fe}\\
\hline
             & {\it neuter}& eisaghon (act. part.) & VbPpPrSg{\bf Ne}\\
             &             & eisaghomeno (pass. pr. part.) & VbPpPrSg{\bf Ne}\\
             &             & eisahthen (pass. past part.) & VbPpPaSg{\bf Ne}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}



\subsubsection{Aspect}

This attribute is used in combination with the attribute of
Tense for the appropriate and unique characterisation of tenses
of all forms (simple and compound) in Greek.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Aspect} & {\it imperf} & eghrafa & VbFiIdPa01Sg{\bf Im}\\
\hline
       & {\it perf} & eghrapsa & VbFiIdPa01Pl{\bf Pe}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}



Below, we give a table showing the formation of various tenses
of the indicative mood with the morphological features of tense
and aspect. Compound forms are in parentheses, and no tags are
given for them as their tagging requires the use of a multi-word
tagger.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||c||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\bf Attribute}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Tense} & {\bf Aspect} &  & \\
\hline \hline
{\it pres}   & {\it imperf} & ghrafw & VbFiIdPr01SgIm\\
\hline
{\it past}   & {\it imperf} & eghrafa & VbFiIdPa01SgIm\\
\hline
{\it past}   & {\it perf} & eghrapsa & VbFiIdPa01SgPe\\
\hline
{\it pres}   & {\it perf} & (ehw ghrapsei) & -\\
\hline
{\it fut}   & {\it imperf} & (tha ghrafw) & -\\
\hline
{\it fut}   & {\it perf} & (tha ghrapsw) & -\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}






\subsubsection{Voice}

The Greek language recognises two values for  the attribute of
voice, the same as proposed by EAGLES at Level 2a.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Voice} & {\it active} & ghrafw & VbFiIdPr01SgIm{\bf Ac}\\
\hline
       & {\it passive} & ghrafomai & VbFiIdPa01PlPe{\bf Ps}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% ADJECTIVES
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Adjective}
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf A}&Type&Degree&Gen&Num&Case&Use&Mod.T&Infl.T&Defin&Pos&Prs\\
\hline \hline
M& &pos  & m  &s &nom &attr   &pren  &det  &      &        &  \\
u& &comp & f  &p &gen &pred   &postn &indt&      &        &  \\
l& &sup  & n  &  &dat &advb   &       &     &      &        &  \\
t& &     &    &  &acc &nomn   &       &     &      &        &  \\
 & &     &    &  &voc &       &       &     &      &        &  \\
\hline
G&qualf&comp+ &m &s & & & & & & &\\
e&dem  &comp--&f &p & & & & & & &\\
n&poss &comp= &  &  & & & & & & &\\
e&ord  &sup+  &  &  & & & & & & &\\
l&card &sup-- &  &  & & & & & & &\\
e&indf &supabs&  &  & & & & & & &\\
x&inter&      &  &  & & & & & & &\\
 &excl &      &  &  & & & & & & &\\
\hline
A&indf &     &m &s &   & & & & &sg &1\\
l&dem  &     &f &p &   & & & & &pl &2\\
e&poss &     &  &  &   & & & & &   &3\\
t&ord  &     &  &  &   & & & & & &\\
h&card &     &  &  &   & & & & & &\\
\hline
N& &pos  & m  &s     &nom &  && &      &     & \\
E& &comp & f  &p     &gen &  && &      &     &  \\
R& &sup  &mf  &sp    &dat &  && &      &     &   \\
C& &     &    &      &acc &  && &     &      &    \\
 & &     &    &      &bas &  && &     &      &    \\
\hline
L& &pos  & m  &s     &nom       &attr & &&& & \\
e& &comp & f  &p     &gen       &pred & &&& &  \\
e& &sup  & n  &      &dat       &prem & &&& &   \\
c& &     & c  &      &acc       &postm& &&& &      \\
h& &     &    &      &bas       &weak & &&& &     \\
 & &     &    &      &          &strg & &&& &     \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
L0  &\multicolumn{11}{|c||}{{\bf ADJECTIVE}}\\
\hline
 &qual &pos &  m & s &nom & &    &    &        &      &  \\
L&poss &comp&  f & p &gen & &    &    &        &      &  \\
1&indf &sup &  n &   &dat & &    &    &        &      &  \\
 &card &    &    &   &acc & &    &    &        &      &  \\
 &ord  &    &    &   &    & &    &    &        &      &  \\
\hline
 &     &comp+ &  &   &       &attr  &prem&    &  &      &  \\
L&     &comp--&  &   &       &pred  &postm&    &  &       &  \\
2&     &sup+  &  &   &       &      &    &    &  &      &  \\
a&     &sup-- &  &   &       &      &    &    &   &      &  \\
 &     &supabs&  &   &       &      &    &    &   &      &  \\
\hline
L& &   &It c &It n &Gr voc &         &    &Ge wek&Da def  &  & \\
2& &   &Sp c &Sp c &Gr ind &  &           &Ge str&Da indf &  & \\
b& &   &  &  &     &       &              &Ge mxd&Da unmk &  &  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}
\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

A large core of agreement emerges as to the Adjective category.\\

\subsubsection{Type}

The GENELEX and AlethDic models reflect a
distinction which is also made in traditional grammars of other Romance
languages (e.g. Italian), i.e. a first disjunction between the
so-called `qualificatif' and `indicatif' Adjectives.\\
The latter are those Adjectives which also have pronominal function,
and in different grammatical traditions are called Determiners in
their adjectival function. The former are all the other Adjectives.\\
Indicative Adjectives are further divided into
possessives, demonstratives, relatives, indefinites, numerals (ordinals and
cardinals), interrogatives, exclamatories.

Moreover, the GENELEX model distinguishes 3 possible functions, i.e.:
\begin{center}
{\it
         (i)   le chien est n\^{o}tre\\
         (ii)  n\^{o}tre chien\\
         (iii) le n\^{o}tre}\\
\end{center}
as  (i) Adjective, (ii) Determiner, (iii) Pronoun respectively.\\

In a preceding version of this
proposal we did not propose the feature Type at the recommended level
and we had suggested the inclusion of indicative adjectives among
Pronouns and/or Determiners,
in order to make possible a comparison of the Romance and English
traditions.
However, after the first cycle of tests and practical applications
carried out in the framework of the MULTEXT project, the French partners
strongly recommended having the possibility of marking the three possible
functions of e.g. possessives, and hence their inclusion also in the
Adjective category.\\
Furthermore, the majority of the partners have been in favour of
the inclusion in this feature of values such as `cardinal' and
`ordinal'.\\
Hence, the values proposed for
{\bf Type} to be marked at common level are:
`qualificative', `possessive', `ordinal', 'cardinal' and `indefinite'.\\

The fact of having indicative adjectives motivates the presence
 in this table the of features such as {\bf Number of Possessor} and {\bf
Person}.\\

Each language-specific application
should specify clearly in which category the indicative adjectives
are treated in order for cross-linguistic comparisons to be made
possible.

\subsubsection{Degree}

GENELEX only foresees, in addition to the values commonly agreed for
this attribute, further specifications such as `comp+', `comp-', `comp='
({\it comparatif-superiorite, comparatif-inferiorite,
comparatif-egalite}
`sup+', `sup-', `subabs', ({\it superlatif-superiorite,
superlatif-
inferiorite, superaltif-absolu}
(GENELEX, Sept. 1993),
which are proposed here at level 2a,
given that they are relevant for many languages.

\subsubsection{Gender, Number and Case}
These are arranged in the same way as for Nouns.


\subsubsection{Use}
This is an attribute introduced by MULTILEX among the syntactic
specifications, to specify how an adjective can be used:\\
- `attributive': the adjective modifies a noun inside an NP.\\
- `predicative': the adjective can be used as a subject complement of a copular
verb, as an object complement or as a secondary predicate.\\
- `adverbial': the adjective modifies a verb or a VP.\\
- `nominalized': the adjective can be used attributively in an NP without head
(Dutch-dependent).
The value here is not to intended to specify whether a noun can be derived from
an adjective. \\

In the EAGLES rows only the first two are proposed in the
common core, Level-2a: they are marked in German and in Dutch.\\

\subsubsection{Modification Type}
This attribute, called Order in MULTILEX,
specifies whether an attributive adjective precedes or
follows the noun. The default value can change depending on languages:
`prenominal' for English, `postnominal' for Romance languages. The different
position often determines distinctions in sense (see section on
Italian).\\

These values are very important in tagging.\\

In the Leech/Wilson
proposal, the values of {\bf Uses} and {\bf Modification Type}
are collapsed
in the attribute {\bf Uses} (in their tagset called {\bf Position}): the two values
`weak' and `strong' are added for German adjective inflection. In the EAGLES
proposal these two values are put under the attribute {\bf Inflection
Type}, with the value `mixed' for dealing with the two possibilities.\\
All these values are only relevant for tagging, but are left in the
Lexicon proposal as an example of something one might want to record,
e.g. in frequency lexicons.

\subsubsection{Inflection Type}
This feature is given for languages such as German.\\

\subsubsection{Definiteness}
This feature is introduced with the values `definite', `indefinite',
`unmark' for Danish.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

In Italian, the Adjective agrees in Number and Gender with the noun to which
it refers. Another pertinent feature is Degree.\\

\subsubsection{Type}
Two types are distinguished: `qualificatives' and `determinatives'. The
former are tagged `A'; the latter constitute
the class of Pronominal Adjectives (see the sections Pronouns
and Determiners) and are recognized by the tag `D'. In the Italian Corpus
and Dictionary the tag {\bf A} contains,
therefore, the value `qualificative'
by default.\\

\subsubsection{Degree}

The default value is `positive';
adjectives can also have comparative and superlative degree.\\

-- ``Analytical forms":\\
The comparatives are, in general,
expressed by analytical forms: {\it il piu'
bravo, il meno onesto, alto quanto me}.\\

The relative superlative indicates the highest or the least degree of a
quality in relation to something (humans or things): {\it il piu' bravo della
classe}.\\

These analytical forms present encoding problems from a corpus
perspective: they
are not dealt with in
corpus tagging practice with a word-by-word approach, since they are
constructed with more than one word. They belong to the set of phenomena
to be codified with the strategy of multi-word expression tagging (see Leech
and Wilson Invitation Draft).\\

--``Synthetic forms".\\
The absolute superlative is constructed by adding the suffixes {\it -issimo,
-errimo, -entissimo} or the prefixes {\it super-, extra-, iper-} etc. to the
stem of the adjective: {\it dolcissimo, acerrimo, munificentissimo, ipercritico,
ultrarapido}.\\

There are a restricted number of adjectives which have the
so-called `organic' comparative and superlative, which are
considered as exceptions, e.g. {\it maggiore, migliore, ...}.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}  & {\it positive}& grande (uomo) & A/ms\\
\hline
              & {\it comparative}& (fratello) maggiore& A/ms{\bf c}\\
\hline
              & {\it superlative}& massimo (dolore)    &             \\
              &                  & grandissimo (dolore) &A/ms{\bf s}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender and Number}

Within this category, two groups are recognized:\\
- I group: {\it ver-o/-a, ver-i/-e}.\\
- II group: {\it dolce, dolci}.\\
This second group is given the value {\it n} (common)
for gender in the lexicon, whereas in the corpus it can sometimes
be disambiguated by the
gender of the noun (see under nouns).
{\it
\begin{verbatim}
          amico vero, amiche vere       A/ms   A/fp
          parola dolce, biscotto dolce  A/fs   A/ms
          insegnante capace             A/ns
\end{verbatim}
}
Some adjectives are completely invariable: they have
the tag {\it nn} for
Gender and Number in lexicon. Adjectives derived from Adverbs ({\it dappoco,
dabbene}, etc.) belong to this group.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& vero          & A/{\bf m}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  vera          & A/{\bf f}\\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&               &      \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
{\bf \it l-spec}& {\it common  }&  dolce          & S/{\bf n}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& caro          & A/m{\bf s}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & cari           & A/m{\bf p}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\bf l-spec}       & {\it invariant}& pari            & A/n{\bf n}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Use}

Adjectives can have `attributive' and `predicative' value: these are not
encoded in corpus tagging practice, but they are clearly retrievable from
the observation of category sequences in a tagged corpus.\\

However, these two different uses influence the agreement in Number if the
adjective refers to more than one noun (Gender is assigned by the
Gender of the nouns: if the coordinated nouns
are masculine and feminine the adjective selects
the value masculine):\\
- predicative use: singular nouns with masculine and feminine gender,
{\it mio figlio e mia figlia sono studios{\bf i}} (Gend: masc.; Numb:
plur.).\\
- in attributive use, the agreement in gender is not very precise:
with singular nouns which are
very similar in meaning, the adjective
can agree with the closest noun, i.e. it can be singular:
{\it un carattere e una condotta
onest{\bf a}}.

\subsubsection{Modification Type}

This information
is not marked (but as already pointed out above, it is extractable
from sequences).\\

In prenominal position the adjective looses intensity:
\begin{center}
         {\it un amico caro\\
              un caro amico}
\end{center}
Always depending on position, some adjectives also change sense:
\begin{center}
 {\it un uomo povero} (i.e. a not rich man)\\
 {\it un pover'uomo}  (i.e. a man to be sympathyzed)
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Features not applicable in Italian}
{\bf Case, Inflection Type and Definiteness} are not applicable to
Italian adjectives.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}

\subsubsection{Degree of comparison}

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}
& {\it positive}    & (das) gro{\ss}e (Haus)
                    & ADJA:{\bf Pos}.Neut.Nom.Sg.St \\
&                   & (es ist) gro{\ss} & ADJNA:{\bf Pos} \\
\hline
& {\it comparative} & (das) gr\"o{\ss}ere (Haus)
                    & ADJA:{\bf Comp}.Neut.Nom.Sg.St \\
&                   & (es ist) gr\"o{\ss}er & ADJNA:{\bf Comp}\\
\hline
& {\it superlative} & (das) gr\"o{\ss}te (Haus)
                    & ADJA:{\bf Sup}.Neut.Nom.Sg.St \\
&                   & (es ist am) gr\"o{\ss}ten & ADJNA:{\bf Sup}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

The feature {\em gender\/} applies only to attributive adjectives.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}
& {\it masculine} & (ein) gro{\ss}er (Mann)
                  & ADJA:Pos.{\bf Masc}.Nom.Sg.Mix \\
\hline
& {\it feminine}  & (eine) gro{\ss}e (Frau)
                  & ADJA:Pos.{\bf Fem}.Nom.Sg.Mix\\
\hline
& {\it neuter}    & (ein) gro{\ss}es (Haus)
                  & ADJA:Pos.{\bf Neut}.Nom.Sg.Mix \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

The feature {\em number\/} applies only to attributive adjectives.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}
& {\it singular} & (der) gro{\ss}e (Mann)
                 & ADJA:Pos.Masc.Nom.{\bf Sg}.Sw \\
\hline
& {\it plural}   & (die) gro{\ss}en (M\"anner)
                 & ADJA:Pos.Masc.Nom.{\bf Pl}.Sw \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Case}

The feature {\em case\/} applies only to attributive adjectives.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}
& {\it nominative} & (der) gro{\ss}e (Mann)
                   & ADJA:Pos.Masc.{\bf Nom}.Sg.Sw \\
\hline
& {\it genitive}   & (des) gro{\ss}en (Mannes)
                   & ADJA:Pos.Masc.{\bf Gen}.Sg.Sw \\
\hline
& {\it dative}     & (dem) gro{\ss}en (Manne)
                   & ADJA:Pos.Masc.{\bf Dat}.Sg.Sw \\
\hline
& {\it accusative} & (den) gro{\ss}en (Mann)
                   & ADJA:Pos.Masc.{\bf Akk}.Sg.Sw \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Use}

The IMS-Tagset considers only the {\em attributive\/} and {\em
non-attributive\/} use of adjectives. Adjectives which are used
predicatively or as adverbs do not differ in their inflectional shape and
are therefore not distinguished. Nominalized adjectives are annotated
as common nouns\footnote{cf. feature {\em inflection\/} of adjectives
(section \ref{adj-infl})}.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Use}
& {\it attributive}     & (ein) schnelles (Auto)
                        & ADJ{\bf A}:Pos.Neut.Nom.Sg.Mix \\
\hline
& {\it non-attributive} & (es ist) schnell     & ADJ{\bf NA} \\
&                       & (es f\"ahrt) schnell & ADJ{\bf NA} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Inflection}
\label{adj-infl}

The feature {\em inflection\/} applies only to attributive adjectives.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Inflection}
& {\it strong}  & (welch) gro{\ss}er (Mann)
                & ADJA:Pos.Masc.Nom.Sg.{\bf St} \\
\hline
& {\it weak}    & (der) gro{\ss}e (Mann)
                & ADJA:Pos.Masc.Nom.Sg.{\bf St} \\
\hline
& {\it mixed}   & (ein) gro{\ss}er (Mann)
                & ADJA:Pos.Masc.Nom.Sg.{\bf Mix} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Degree }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Degree} & {\em positive} & big & AJ \\
 & {\em comparative} & bigger & AJR \\
 & {\em superlative} & biggest & AJT \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
There are no distinctions of Gender, Number or Case among English adjectives.
 Most
adjectives which are disyllabic or polysyllabic, (e.g. {\it dreadful, beautiful}) are
invariable, and do not take
 inflection
for degree.  These adjectives form comparison by the use of the adverbs {\em
 more}
and {\em most}.  There are many exceptions, however, including in particular
disyllabic adjectives ending in {\it -y\/}, for which both the inflectional
and the non-inflectional comparison are acceptable.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\subsubsection{Degree of comparison}

These attribute values also apply to Dutch. In the Lemmas Lexicon the degree
of
comparison is marked with Yes tags for Positive, Comparative and Superlative.
The
tags in the table below, however, are single or composed Flection Type tags from
the
Wordforms tag set. The single tags mark non-inflected forms, the composed tags
inflected adjectival forms. Inflection is expressed by the `E' tag, which means:
`with
suffix `e''.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree        } & {\it positive   } & (een) groot (huis)& P       \\
                     &                   & (het) groot (huis)& PE      \\
\hline
                     &{\it comparative  }& (een) groter (huis)&C      \\
                     &                   & (het) grotere (huis)&CE     \\
\hline
                     &{\it superlative  }& (dat huis is het) grootst&S \\
                     &                   & (het) grootste (huis) &SE   \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
CELEX also attributes the comparative and superlative tags `C' and `S' to some
adverbs: `vaker', `vaakst'.\\

\subsubsection{Gender}
Not applicable in Dutch. (See the contextual Gender tag for
Adjectives in nominal use.)

\subsubsection{Number}
Not applicable in Dutch.

\subsubsection{Case}
Not applicable in Dutch.

\subsubsection{Use}

Concerning the attributive--non-attributive use of adjectives, CELEX does not
have
such tags. But if they existed, they would not be distinctive enough because,
according
to Dutch grammar, an adjective used predicatively (non-attributively) can still
be an
adjective or an adverb. In the German non-attributive examples: `er ist schnell'
~\underline{schnell}
would be an adjective, but in: `es f\"ahrt schnell' \underline{schnell}
would be
 an adverb according to
Dutch grammar. CELEX, however, makes a distinction, which is more pertinent to
Dutch, between the adverbial and non-adverbial use of adjectives.\\
\\
The examples in the table below are not taken from the {\it Dutch Linguistic
Guide\/},
because they are lacking.\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Use           } & {\it adverbial  } & (hij rijdt) snel& adv     \\
\hline
                     &{\it non-adverbial}& (een) snelle (auto)&nonadv\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

This can be an L2 tag.\\

However, a more complete usage table for Dutch Adjectives would be the MULTILEX
tag set, presented in the synoptical table of Adjectives. This tagset
distinguishes
between: Attributive, Predicative, Adverbial and Nominal use:\\

{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table}!\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Use           } & {\it attributive} & (de) snelle auto& AdjAttrib\\
\hline
                     &{\it predicative  }& (de auto is) snel  &AdjPred\\
\hline
                     &{\it adverbial    }& (de auto rijdt) snel&AdjAdv\\
\hline
                     &{\it nominal      }& (de/het)snelle      &AdjNom\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Inflection}


There is no distinction in Dutch between strong, weak and mixed inflection
as exists in
German. But the Inflection values {\it determined\/} and {\it indetermined\/},
as proposed by
MULTILEX, are applicable to Dutch, since the inflection of Dutch adjectival word
forms
partly depends on whether the article preceding the Adjective is definite or
indefinite.
A Dutch adjective, used {\it attributively\/}, only has \underline{no}
inflection when preceded by an
\underline{indefinite} article or pronoun and followed by a neuter noun. In
\underline{\underline{all other}} cases it has
inflected forms. Used {\it predicatively\/}, adjectives are always without
inflection (with the
exception of a certain use of superlatives: `Zijn huis is het
mooist\underline{e}' !). \\
However there is no such Inflection value tag in the CELEX tag set, probably
because
in the Wordforms Lexicon the P and PE tags of Positive and Positive with suffix
`e'
cover this domain (see the Degree table). \\

{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table}!\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Inflection    } & {\it determined } & (het) groote (huis)&AdjDet \\
\hline
                     &{\it indetermined }& (een) groot (huis)&AdjIndet\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

This can be an L2 tag.\\

\subsubsection{Language-specific feature:
non-verbal part of separable verb}
We need a special tag to mark adjectives which are part of a separable verb:
`fijn' in
fijnhakken and `dwars' in dwarsliggen etc.\\


\newpage

%% ADJECTIVES

\subsection{Application to Spanish}
\subsubsection{Type}
Adjectives are not subtyped in ET-ES dictionaries.

\subsubsection{Degree}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}   & {\it positive } &bueno     &       \\
\hline
               & {\it comparative}&mejor     &             \\
\hline
                  & {\it superlative}& buen\'{i}simo &           \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
In Spanish  most comparatives are expressed by analytical forms;
however, we have a few ``organic" comparative such as ``mejor" or ``mayor".
Only a small group of adjectives can take superlative suffixes the
   {\it \'{i}simo, \'{e}rrimo: eg. interesant\'{i}simo celeb\'{i}rrimo.}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}   & {\it m        } &  bueno     & masc      \\
\hline
               & {\it f       }  & buena     &  fem           \\
\hline
               & {\it c       }  & responsable &           \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
There are no neuter adjectives in Spanish. We have adjectives
which do not inflect for gender (eg. {\it responsable}). Just as in the
case of
nouns, in the Eurotra dictionaries we leave them unvalued for the attribute
Gender. We can, however, add an extra language-specific value (L2b)
``common" for these cases.

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}   & {\it s        } &  buena   & sing  \\
\hline
               & {\it p       }  &  buenas  & plu         \\
\hline
               & {\it i       }  &  gratis  & inv         \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
Most Spanish adjectives inflect for number. Only a small group of
them are common or invariant.



\subsubsection{Modification Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Mod.T.}   & {\it premod   } &  un buen libro   & adjpos=pren\\
\hline
               & {\it postmod }  &  un libro bueno & adjpos=postn\\
\hline
               & {\it indif   }  &  largo   & adjpos=none \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
Some Spanish adjectives are restricted wrt order (in some cases
order determines the meaning of adjectives:
{\it un pobre hombre vs. un
hombre pobre}). We have adjectives which:\\

a) can only occur as postmodifiers: ``una entrada accesible"\\
b) can only occur as premodifiers: ``un buen/gran hombre"
(most of these adjectives have their postmodifier form: ``un
hombre bueno/grande", (apocope)).\\
c) can occur as both pre- and postmodifiers: ``un (dif\'{i}cil)
trabajo (dif\'{i}cil).\\

These facts are coded in ET-ES grammars under the feature ``adjpos".

\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

\subsubsection{Type}

As indicated before, French has many more adjective types than just
qualificative. These will be dealt with in the pronoun-determiner section.

%--------
\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}     &  Example        &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}        &    {\it masculine} &  petit          &  ADJE{\bf M}S \\
\hline
                    &    {\it feminine}  &  petite         &  ADJE{\bf F}S \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}    &  Example       &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Number}        &    {\it singular} &  grand         &  ADJEM{\bf S} \\
\hline
                    &    {\it plural}   &  grands        &  ADJEM{\bf P} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Use:} As mentioned for other languages, attributive/predicative use
is a syntactic distinction
which applies to French. Since all adjectives can be used either in attributive
or in predicative position and would not allow for other disambiguations,
the distinction is not relevant in a tagset.

{\bf Degree} applies to French, but is marked by external premodifiers and
 therefore
does not require a special adjective class in the tagset.

{\bf Modification type} applies to French; in some specific cases, the position
even implies a semantic distinction: e.g.
{\it un grand homme} (a great man) vs.
{\it un homme grand} (a tall man).
Although the distinction could be of interest in a
tagset for its prediction potential,
it is not used in the IBMF tagset.

{\bf Case} and {\bf inflection type} do not apply to French.
{\bf Definiteness} does not apply, although it applies
for other types of French `adjectives" (see determiners).

%--------
\subsubsection{IBMF Tagset features not applicable in EAGLES}

The tagset has a special feature for indefinite adjectives. This will
be put in the pronoun-determiner class.

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}

============ =========== =========== ====
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
============ =========== =========== ====
Type         qualificat. bon         f
             ordinal     deuxi'eme   o
             cardinal    deux        c
             indefinite  quelconque  i
             possessive  mien        s
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Degree}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Degree       positive    bon         p
             comparative meilleur    c
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

Note:\\

The distinction positive/comparative applies only to two adjectives in
French: bon and mauvais. All other adjectives form their comparatives
with {\it plus} + adjective (e.g., {\it plus grand}). Superlative is
also a compound form ({\it le} + comparative, e.g. {\it le plus grand}).


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   bon         m
             feminine    bonne       f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    bon         s
             plural      bons        p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

Not applicable to French.


\subsubsection{Combinations}

\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------

========= ======= =============================================
Lexique   Corpus  Example
========= ======= =============================================
Afcfp-     AFP     meilleures
Afcfs-     AFS     meilleure
Afcmp-     AMP     meilleurs
Afcms-     AMS     meilleur
Afpfp-     AFP     bonnes
Afpfs-     AFS     bonne
Afpmp-     AMP     bons
Afpms-     AMS     bon

Ai-fp-     AFP     certaines, memes, quelconques
Ai-fs-     AFS     certane, meme, quelconque
Ai-mp-     AMP     certain, memes, quelconques
Ai-ms-     AMS     certain, meme, quelconque

Ac-fp-     AFP     deux
Ac-fs-     AFS     une
Ac-mp-     AMP     deux
Ac-ms-     AMS     un

Ao-fp-     AFP     premieres
Ao-fs-     AFS     premiere
Ao-mp-     AMP     premiers
Ao-ms-     AMS     premier

As-fp-     AFP     leurs, miennes, tiennes, siennes, notres, votres
As-fs-     AFS     leur, mienne, tienne, sienne, notre, votre
As-mp-     AMP     leurs, miens, tiens, siens, notres, votres
As-ms-     AMS     leur, mien, tien, sien, notre, votre
=====================================================================


\end{verbatim}
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value            Example     Tag
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
Type         qualificative   azul
             possessive      seu
             indefinite
             cardinal        dois
             ordinal         primeiro
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


\subsubsection{Degree}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ --------------- --------------- ----
Attribute    Value            Example        Tag
------------ --------------- --------------- ----
degree       positive
             comparative     melhor
             superlative     paupe'rrimo
------------ --------------- --------------- ----
\end{verbatim}

In the Portuguese model the `positive' value is not explicitly marked because
it is considered a default value.


\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Tag
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   bom
             feminine    boa
             neuter
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

The value {\it neuter} does not apply to Portuguese adjectives.

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Tag
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    bom
             plural      bons
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

Not applicable to Portuguese.

\subsubsection{Other features required to encode Possessive Adjectives}

The following features are also required to encode the Portuguese
possessive adjectives:

\subsubsection{Possessor}

\begin{verbatim}
------------------------------------------------------
Attribute         Value           Example        Tag
------------------------------------------------------
Number-possessor  singular        meu
                  plural          nosso
------------------------------------------------------

\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Person}

As we explained in the section on Verbs, the Portuguese lexicon
adopted the decomposition of the feature {\it person} into the features
{\it person-deixis} and {\it person-conc}. These features are also used
to encode Portuguese possessive adjectives.



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%------------------------------------------
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Danish}

For Danish adjectives the following features are relevant: Type, Degree, Gender,
Number,  Use and Definiteness (language-specific property).
The feature Case applies only to nominalised adjectives (cf. section Noun, item
Case.)\\

{\bf Type}\\

The attribute Type, including cardinals, ordinals and quantifiers, seems
to be difficult to treat cross-linguistically. Basically, in Danish these
behave in a similar way to adjectives, but within the Eurotra framework they
were treated as separate classes (although they were previously regarded as
sub-categories of the adjective category.) \\

{\bf Degree}\\

The default value of the attribute Degree is `positive' (called
 `base' in EDEMD).
The absolute superlative can be regarded as an additional degree; it is composed
of the prefix {\bf aller-} and the superlative of the adjective.

There are a huge number of  adjectives which have periphrastic instead
of inflectional comparison; in such cases the comparative is comprised of {\bf
 mere} +
the positive form of the adjective, and the superlative of {\bf mest} + the
 positive
form. In corpus annotation the analytical forms occurring in the text are
recognised word-by-word, i.e. not recognised as comparative or superlative.\\

The EDEMD applies the attribute `Comparison type' to all adjectives; this
 feature
is relevant to lexicons only. Traditional dictionaries of Danish indicate
deviations from the regular inflectional patterns.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}     & {\it positive}    &  dyr   & adj\_{\bf pos}    \\
\hline
               & {\it comparative}    &  dyrere   & adj\_{\bf comp}   \\
\hline
               & {\it superlative}    &  dyrest   & adj\_{\bf sup}   \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline



{\bf  Gender, Number and Definiteness}\\

Agreement applies to adjectives in gender, number and definiteness,
 when the adjective is used in attributive function. Definiteness does not apply
 in
predicative function.

A number of adjectives have defective inflection.  Another group have no
possibility of inflection (gender, number and definiteness) or comparison: they
 are
completely invariable. \\

{\bf  Gender}\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}     & {\it common}    & (en) {\bf dyr} (bil)   & adj\_{\bf com}
 \\
\hline
               & {\it neuter}    & (et) {\bf dyrt} (hus)   & adj\_{\bf neut}
 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

{\bf  Number}\\

The adjective has no gender and definiteness agreement in the plural (neither in
attributive nor in predicative functions). All regular adjectives receive {\bf
 -e} as
the plural ending, both in definite and in indefinite use.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}     & {\it singular}    & (en) {\bf dyr} (bil)   & adj\_com\_{\bf
 sg}
\\
\hline
               & {\it plural}    &  {\bf dyre} (biler)   & adj\_{\bf  pl}   \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf  Definiteness}\\

The morphological distinction between definite and indefinite only exists in
the singular in attributive function. As mentioned above (item Number), the
definite and indefinite plural forms of adjectives are identical. However,
a parser-based corpus tagger can distinguish between the two forms on the basis
of the immediately preceding context of the adjective.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Definiteness}     & {\it indefinite}    & (en) {\bf dyr} (bil)   &
adj\_com\_sg\_{\bf indef} \\
\hline
               & {\it definite}    & (den) {\bf dyre} (bil)   &
 adj\_com\_sg\_{\bf  def}
\\
\hline
{\bf Definiteness}     & {\it indefinite}    &   {\bf dyre} (biler)   &
 adj\_pl\_{\bf
indef} \\
\hline
               & {\it definite}    & (de) {\bf dyre} (biler)   & adj\_pl\_{\bf
 def}  \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf Use}\\

Corpus tagging devices recognise the morphological forms; however, in the
case of syncretic forms (e.g. singular definite and plural) it is
necessary to parse the sentence to disambiguate the form or else the tagger
may insert more than one single tag.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Use}     & {\it attributive}    & (en) {\bf dyr} bil   & adj\_ ...\_{\bf
 attr} \\
\hline
               & {\it predicative}    & (bilen er) {\bf dyr}  & adj\_...\_{\bf
 pred} \\
\hline
               & {\it adverbial} & (pigen taler) {\bf smukt}  & adj\_...\_{\bf
 adv} \\
\hline
               & {\it nominal}    &  (den/det/de) {\bf  dyre}  & adj\_...\_{\bf
 nom} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf Synoptic table of agreement relations}\\

The value of Use may also be inserted into the tag combination if
needed for special purposes.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Agreement A}     & {\it Gender, Number, Def.ness} & en {\bf dyr} bil &
adj\_com\_sg\_indef \\
                              &  & et {\bf dyrt} hus   & adj\_neut\_sg\_indef
 \\
\hline
                           &  & den {\bf dyre} bil   & adj\_com\_sg\_def  \\
\hline
                             &  & det {\bf dyre} hus   & adj\_neut\_sg\_def  \\
\hline
               & {\it Number, Def.ness}    &  {\bf dyre} biler/huse   &
 adj\_pl\_indef
\\
\hline
               & {\it Number, Def.ness}    &  (de) {\bf dyre} biler/huse   &
adj\_pl\_def   \\
\hline
\hline
{\bf Agreement P}     & {\it Gender, Number}    & en bil/bilen er {\bf dyr}  &
adj\_com\_sg    \\
                              &  & et hus/huset er {\bf dyrt}  & adj\_neut\_sg
 \\
\hline
               & {\it Number}    &  biler/husene er {\bf dyre}  & adj\_pl   \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

A word-by-word tagger is able to annotate the plural adjective form with the
definiteness feature on the basis of the immediate context (i.e. presence or
absence of articles, possesives, etc.) \\

\newpage

%% ADJECTIVES

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



\newpage

\subsection{Application to Greek}



Features that apply to Greek adjectives are: Degree, Gender,
Number and Case.\\




\subsubsection{Degree}


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}  & {\it basic}& psylos & Aj{\bf Ba}\\
\hline
              & {\it comparative}& psyloteros & Aj{\bf Cp}\\
\hline
              & {\it superlative}& psylotatos    & Aj{\bf Su} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

All adjectives have a form for the value {\it basic}. Some of
them form the comparative and the superlative degree in one of
the following ways:\\

(a) periphrastically, from the basic form and a
word/phrase denoting comparison:\\

\begin{center}

{\bf Comparative}: {\it pio kalos, lighotero kalos, to idhio
kalos}\\ {\bf Superlative}: {\it o pio kalos, o lighotero
kalos}\\

\end{center}

This type of formation can only be dealt in corpora by
multi-word tagging; no information on this is to be coded
in the lexicon.\\

(b) Certain adjectives can also form the comparative degree
(denoting superiority) by the addition of -ter- between the stem
and the ending, and the superlative by the addition of -tat- in
the same position:\\

\begin{center}

{\bf Basic}: {\it puknos, psylos}\\
{\bf Comparative}: {\it puknoteros, psyloteros}\\
{\bf Superlative}: {\it puknotatos, psylotatos}\\

\end{center}

(c) A few adjectives form the superlative degree monolectically,
using a different stem or a different ending from the normal
one:\\

\begin{center}

{\bf Basic}: {kalos, meghalos, aplos}\\
{\bf Comparative}: {\it kaluteros, meghaluteros, aplousteros}\\
{\bf Superlative}: {\it kallistos, meghistos, aploustatos}\\

\end{center}



\subsubsection{Gender, Number and Case}

In Greek, adjectives must agree in gender, number and case with
the nouns they modify.\\

The majority of Greek adjectives are inflected according to
paradigms that form distinct forms for all three genders. A few
adjectives (ending in -ys, -ys -es) share the same form for the
masculine and the feminine gender:\\

\begin{center}
{\it kalos, kaly, kalo}\\
but\\
{\it eutuhys, eutuhys, eutuhes}\\
\end{center}

Although for nouns we use the value {\it masc-fem}, we have
decided not to use it for adjectives, given that in the majority
of cases they can be disambiguated in the corpus on the basis of
the noun they refer to:

\begin{center}
{\it {\bf O Ghiannys} einai eutuhys} - masc.\\
{\it {\bf Y Maria} einai eutuhys} - fem.\\
\end{center}

In relation to Number and Case, the values {\it invariant} and
{\it indeclinable} respectively are used for adjectives that
retain the same form irrespective of gender, number and case. As
in the case of nouns, these are foreign words which have entered
the Greek language without having adopted the inflectional
system, and their disambiguation relies on context.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& kalos       & AjBa{\bf Ma}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  kaly        & AjBa{\bf Fe}\\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&  kalo        & AjBa{\bf Ne}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& kalos        & AjBaMa{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & kaloi        & AjBaMa{\bf Pl}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\bf l-spec}  & {\it invariant}& roz          & AjBaMaSg{\bf Nv}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}  & {\it nom}& kalos          & AjBaMaSg{\bf Nm}\\
\hline
              & {\it gen}  & kalou      & AjBaMaSg{\bf Ge}\\
\hline
              & {\it acc}  & kalo           & AjBaMaSg{\bf Ac}\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
  {\bf l-spec}   & {\it voc}& kale            & AjBaMaSg{\bf Vo}\\
\hline
  {\bf l-spec}   & {\it indcl}& roz            & AjBaMaNv{\bf Ic}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\subsubsection{Use}

Although this feature (belonging to level 2a) is not currently
used in corpus tagging, it is applicable to Greek with the
values proposed by EAGLES, i.e.  {\it attributive} and {\it
predicative}.\\



\subsubsection{Comments}

{\bf Type} is not used for Greek, given that cardinal and
ordinal adjectives are included under the category of {\it num}.
Details on the reasons that dictate this practice are given in
the relevant section.\\



\subsubsection{Features not applicable in Greek}

{\bf Modification Type, Inflection Type} and {\bf Definiteness}
are not applicable to Greek adjectives.\\


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%




%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% PRONOUN
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Pronoun}
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf P}&Type &wh-T&Pers&G&N &Case & Pos &Pol   &Funct\\
\hline \hline
M&dem  &   &1 & m  &s  &nom &     &  &             \\
U&indf &   &2 & f  &p  &gen &     &  &             \\
L&pers &   &3 & n  &   &dat &     &  &             \\
T&poss &   &  &    &   &acc &     &  &             \\
 &rel  &   &  &    &   &voc &     &  &             \\
\hline
G&pers & &1 &m   &s  &  &sp&  &           \\
E&rel  & &2 &f   &p  &  &pl&  &           \\
N&poss & &3 &n   &   &  &  &  &           \\
E&indf & &  &    &   &  &  &  &           \\
L&excl & &  &    &   &  &  &  &           \\
 &imprs& &  &    &   &  &  &  &           \\
\hline
A&dem  & &1 &m   &s  &    &sg               & &   \\
l&poss & &2 &f   &p  &    &pl               & &   \\
e&rel  & &3 &n   &   &    &                 & &   \\
t&pers & &  &    &   &    &                 & &   \\
h&indf & &  &    &   &    &                 & &   \\
 &imprs& &  &    &   &    &                 & &   \\
\hline
N&poss   &int  &1 &m   &s    &nom &          & &   \\
E&dem    &rel  &2 &f   &p    &gen &          & &   \\
R&indf   &     &3 &mf  &sp   &dat &          & &   \\
C&int/rel&     &  &    &     &acc &          & &   \\
 &pers   &     &  &    &     &obl &          & &   \\
 &refl   &     &  &    &     &bas &          & &   \\
\hline
L&poss   &int &1 &m   &s    &nom &          & &   \\
e&dem    &rel &2 &f   &p    &gen &          & &   \\
e&indf   &    &3 &n   &     &dat &          & &   \\
c&int/rel&    &  &c   &     &acc &          & &   \\
h&pers   &    &  &    &     &obl &          & &   \\
 &refl   &    &  &    &     &bas &          & &   \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
E-L0   &\multicolumn{9}{|c||}{{\bf PRONOUN}}\\
\hline
E&dem    &   &1 & m  & s     &nom  &   &  &      \\
A&indf   &   &2 & f  & p     &gen  &   &  &      \\
G&poss   &   &3 & n  &       &dat  &   &  &      \\
 &int/rel&   &  &    &       &acc  &   &  &      \\
L&pers   &   &  &    &       &obl  &   &  &      \\
1&refl   &   &  &    &       &obj  &   &  &      \\
 &recp   &   &  &    &       &     &   &  &      \\
 &excl   &   &  &    &       &     &   &  &      \\
\hline
L&  &int &&   &   &    &    & pol  &     \\
2&  &rel &&   &   &    &    & fam  &     \\
a&  &    &&   &   &    &    &      &     \\
\hline
L&  &    &It c &It n &    &Po pobj& &  &Du att       \\
2&  &    &     &     &    &    & &  &Du prd       \\
b&  &    &     &     &    &    & &  &Du adv      \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}


\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

The NERC and the Leech/Wilson schemes propose a multilayered treatment
of Pronouns, thus permitting different levels of granularity in
annotation. The reader should note that the
table above describes the most fine-grained level of linguistic
description of the two proposals,
where Pronouns are recognized as a category of their own.\\

At a less granular level, in these two systems
Pronouns appear merged together with
Determiners. The background reason for this merging
in the
NERC survey was
the necessity of meeting the requirements,
on the one hand, of a
number of English tagsets (e.g. Penn Treebank, Brown, Lancaster)
where, for example, Demonstratives are
undistinguished as to their pronominal and determiner functions and
receive a unique tag, and, on the other hand, of tagsets which
include Articles among the Determiners.
Hence, a multilayered approach was adopted,
where three different
fine-grained levels of linguistic distinctions
offer
the possibility for each existing
practice to be placed at the appropriate level, thus permitting
its reusability (see Monachini and Oestling 1992b).

This solution has also been adopted by the EAGLES Corpus group
for linguistic annotation (Leech and Wilson 1994).\\

A first version of the present document also proposed the same treatment of Pronouns
and Determiners. However, after the first cycle of applications, and in particular
after the MULTEXT concrete testing, it seemed better to distinguish between
different
functions and, therefore, to have different categories for Pronouns and
Determiners, at least at the lexical level.
Lexical descriptions should be independent from applications and should
aim at a general description of each language; corpus tags,
depending on the capabilities of state-of-art tagging techniques,
may underspecify lexical specifications, collapsing many distinctions and
presenting broader categories (Calzolari and Monachini 1994).

Furthermore,
following the TEI proposal,
it has also been decided to have Articles as a separate category.


\subsubsection{Type, Wh-Type}

The column {\bf Type} shows how Pronouns are split into different
subclassifications, recommended at Level-1.\\
The subfeature {\bf wh-Type} is for the further distinction of the
double value `interrogative/relative' and is proposed at Level-2a.

\subsubsection{Person, Case and Possessor}

Other information, such as {\bf Person}, {\bf Case} and
{\bf Possessor} (i.e. the Number of Possessor), are
clearly not applicable to all the Types. This tabular
representation does not permit the indication of
constraints on the application of some features in the presence
of others. These constraints have to be explicitly specified in the
language-specific applications.\\

\subsubsection{Politeness}
This encodes the polite usage of personal pronouns.


\subsubsection{Function}
This feature has been added
for the encoding of `attributive', `predicative' and  `adverbial'
use (see Dutch specific application.)


\subsubsection{ Other values on Level 2b}
Finally, on level 2b, the value `prepositional obj' is foreseen among
the values of the attribute {\bf Case}, for the Portuguese language.



\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

In Italian,
both corpus
and dictionary distinguish Pronouns according to the feature
Type (e.g. indefinite,
demonstrative, possessive, etc.).\\

\subsubsection{Type}

The table below shows the different types pertinent to the
category of Pronouns.

In the following sections, each Type will be discussed in detail.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}&{\it dem  }&questo&PD/ms\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it poss }&mio   &PP/ms\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it indf }&ognuno&PI/ms\\
\hline
           &{\it pers }& io   &PP/ns1s\\
\hline
      &{\it refl }& si   &PF/nn  \\
\hline
{\bf wh-Type}      &{\it int  }&che   &PT/ns\\
\hline
                   &{\it rel  }&che   &PR/ns\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it excl }&quanto!&PE/ns\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Personal Pronoun}

Personal Pronouns are inflected for Person and Number, as shown in the
following table.\\

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c||}{\bf \it Personal }& example   & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}&{\bf Gend.-Numb.} &     &        \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  s    } & io  & PP/ns1s\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  s    } & tu  & PP/ns2s\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  s    } & egli& PP/ms3s\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  p    } & noi & PP/np1s\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  p    } & voi & PP/np2s\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  p    } & essi& PP/mp3s\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

As far as the pronominal paradigm is concerned, Case is not encoded at
present in our DMI and corpus.
Personal  pronouns  are  not lemmatized: `gli'  is not  considered the
dative  form  of the base pronoun  `egli' (he),  but   constitutes   a
separate entry.\\

The Italian pronominal paradigm is described below:\\

{\it forme toniche}: subj (`io, egli'), compl (`me, lui')\\

{\it ama me / da' a me} (dir-obj/prep-obj)\\
(he loves me / he gives to me)\\

{\it ama lui / da' a lui} (dir-obj/prep-obj)\\
(she loves him / she gives to him)\\

{\it forme atone}:  ---, compl (`mi, gli/lo')\\

{\it mi da' / mi ama}   (ind-obj/dir-obj)\\
(he gives me / he loves me)\\
{\it gli da'}  (ind-obj) (he gives him)\\
{\it  lo ama}  (dir-obj) (she loves him)\\

This paradigm can be mapped on the proposed Case system in the following
way:\\

\begin{tabular}{||l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
io, egli & subj                     & nom\\
mi/me    & dir-obj/ind-obj/prep-obj & obj = acc, dat, prep+obj\\
lui      & dir-obj/prep-obj         & obj = acc, prep+obj\\
gli      & ind-obj                  & dat\\
lo       & dir-obj                  & acc\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
{\bf Polite form}\\
In Italian, the modern system of Personal Pronoun for addressing a person
is bipartite: {\it tu} and {\it lei}, feminine singulal
used for the polite form (also for addressing masculine persons).

Polite usages are very interesting from a corpus perspective, but, at
present, are not encoded in our tagger.\\

In polite usages,
two different types of agreement can be used:\\

- agreement by nature:
the participle has masculine gender, i.e. agrees with the masculine noun
and not with the personal pronoun.\\
{\it Professore, Lei si e' occupatO.\\
*Professor (man), She has been interested in ... \\
Professor, you have been interested in ...}\\

- agreement by grammar:
the participle is feminine, i.e.
agrees with the pronoun, even though referred to a masculine noun.\\
{\it Lei, Professore, l'ho sempre ascoltatA\\
*Professor (man), I always have listened to Her\\
Professor, I always have listened to you}\\

Non-tonic personal pronouns always agree by grammar:\\
{\it Professore, vorrei dirLE, spero di rivederLA presto\\
*Professor (man), I want to tell  Her, I hope to see Her soon.\\
Professor, I want to tell you ... , I hope to see you soon}.\\

\subsubsection{Reflexive (Pronoun)}

In Italian, the reflexive pronouns are represented by
{\it mi, ti, si, se', ci, vi, si}.\\
They are inflected for Person and Number, while Gender is not pertinent.\\

For the third singular and plural persons, in addition to {\it si},
the tonic form {\it se'} can be used: {\it egli {\bf si} lava;
egli lava {\bf se'} (stesso);
esse aiutano solo {\bf se'} (stesse). Se'} can be `reinforced'
by the ajdective {\it stesso}: in this case the bigram {\it se stesso}
should be encoded on the basis of multiword expression
tagging strategy.\\

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c|}{\bf \it Reflexive}&\multicolumn{2}{|c||}{\it  }\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}&{\bf Number} & example & It.tag       \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  s    } & mi  & PF/nn1s \\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  s    } & ti  & PF/nn2s \\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  s    } & si, se' & PF/nn3s   \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  p    } & ci  & PF/np1p   \\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  p    } & vi  & PF/np2p   \\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  s    } & si  & PF/nn3p   \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

Formally, reciprocal pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns.

\subsubsection{Possessive}



Possessives are inflected for Number and Gender and agree with the
nouns to which they refer; they are distinguished according to the Person
to which they refer.\\


\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c|}{\bf \it Possessive}&\multicolumn{6}{|c||}{\it }\\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c|}{\bf Person}&{\it 1s}& {\it 2s} & {\it 3s} &
{\it 1p}& {\it 2p} & {\it 3p}\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}&{\bf Number} & \multicolumn{6}{|c||}{}\\
\hline
{\it m     }&{\it  s    } & mio &tuo &suo &nostro&vostro&loro\\
\hline
{\it m     }&{\it  p    } & miei&tuoi&suoi&nostri&vostri&loro\\
\hline
{\it f     }&{\it  s    } & mia & tua&sua &nostra&vostra&loro\\
\hline
{\it f     }&{\it  p    } & mie & tue &sue&nostre&vostre&loro\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

{\it Scrivo con la tua penna, perche' non ho la mia} P{\bf P}/fs\\


Italian has two more possessives: {\it altrui} (of other people)
and {\it proprio} (own), which can
both function as pronouns:\\
\begin{center}
{\it spende il denaro altrui, non il proprio} PP/nn\\
{\it occorre dare del proprio denaro, non dell'altrui} PP/nn
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Possessor}
Information about the possessor is not encoded in the Italian lexicon
or corpus, but it can be inferred from the lemma:\\

{\it queste sono le mie } (owned things plural, but possessor
singular), is tagged PP/fp\\
{\it  questa e' la nostra} (owned thing singular, but possessor
plural) is tagged PP/fs\\

\subsubsection{Demonstrative}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Demonstrative} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &questo & PD/ms \\
\hline
                    &quello & PD/ms \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Among the Demonstratives, the most used are:
{\it questo, codesto, quello}. Deixis is implicitly contained in demonstratives,
but not presently encoded:
\begin{center}
{\it usa queste} PD/fs, {\it non prendere quelle} PD/fp\\
\end{center}

While the others can be used as pronouns or pronominal adjectives, {\it
cio'} only has pronoun function:\\
\begin{center}
     {\it cio' e' vero}             PD/nn
\end{center}

{\it Questi, quegli, costui, colui} are pronouns used only for humans;
{\it questi} and {\it quegli}, scarcely used and archaic,
refer to the singular:

\begin{center}
     {\it Questi e' un bell'uomo} PD/ms
\end{center}

{\it Stesso, medesimo}
can be demonstrative pronouns.


\subsubsection{Indefinite}


\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Indefinite} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &ognuno & PI/ms \\
\hline
                    &chiunque & PI/ns \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Italian Indefinites are inflected for Gender and Number.
Among the indefinites, the following can only be pronouns:
{\it uno, ognuno, qualcuno, chiunque, chicchessia, nulla, niente}.\\
\begin{center}
{\it ognuno deve fare ...} PI/ns
\end{center}


Some can have both the pronoun and
the pronominal adjective/determiner
functions:
{\it alcuno, ciascuno, taluno, nessuno, tutto,
alquanto, poco, molto, troppo, tanto}.
\begin{center}
{\it ho comprato il libro e l'ho letto tutto}  PI/ms
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Interrogative}


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\it \bf Interrogative}& example &It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &chi    & PT/ns \\
\hline
                    &quale & PT/ns \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Interrogatives are inflected for Gender and Number.\\

{\it Chi} is pronoun only.\\

\begin{center}
{\it  Chi viene oggi?}        PT/ns\\
\end{center}

{\it Che, quale, quanto} can be either pronouns or
pronominal adjectives/determiners:
\begin{center}
{\it  A che pensi?}           PT/nn\\
\end{center}



\subsubsection{Exclamatory}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Exclamatory} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &quanto!& PE/ms \\
\hline
                    &quale!& PE/ns \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

{\it Che, quale, quanto} can also have exclamatory value:
\begin{center}
        {\it quanti sono venuti!} PE/mp
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Relatives}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Relative} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &che    & PR/nn \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

The Relatives comprise {\it che, il quale, cui}.

{\it Che} is used both
for singular and plural, and for masculine and
feminine.\\

\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}


% ***** BEGIN GERMAN (modify following text) ************************
\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it personal}   & ich & {\bf PPER}:1.Sg.Nom \\
\hline
& {\it reflexive}  & sich & {\bf PRF}:3.Sg.Akk \\
\hline
& {\it possessive}  & meins  & {\bf PPOSS}:Neut.Nom.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it demonstrative} & dieses & {\bf PDEMS}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it relative} & , das    & {\bf PRELS}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it indefinite} & irgendeines & {\bf PROS}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it interrogative} & was? & {\bf PWS}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

The feature {\em gender\/} applies to all pronouns -- except personal
pronouns (where it is relevant only for 3rd person singular) and reflexive
pronouns. It is not defined for a number of indefinite pronouns such as
{\em jemand, niemand, man etc.\/}

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}
& {\it masculine} & er          & PPER:3.Sg.Nom.{\bf Masc} \\
\hline
& {\it feminine}  & meine       & PPOSS:{\bf Fem}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it neuter}    &  das        & PRELS:{\bf Neut}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

The feature {\em number\/} applies to all pronouns.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}
& {\it singular} & keiner & PROS:Masc.Nom.{\bf Sg} \\
\hline
& {\it plural}   & welche & PWS:Neut.Nom.{\bf Pl} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Case}

The feature {\em case\/} applies to all pronouns.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}
& {\it nominative} & keiner & PROS:Masc.{\bf Nom}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it genitive}   & niemandes  & PROS:{\bf Gen}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it dative}     & jemandem  & PROS:{\bf Dat}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it accusative} & wen? & PWS:{\bf Akk}.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Possessor}

The feature {\em possessor\/} is not encoded in the IMS-Tagset. It can be
determined from the lemma.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Pronoun-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Pronoun-type} & {\em personal} & it, she & PPs3, PPs3NF \\
 & {\em reflexive} & myself & PRs1 \\
 & {\em possessive} & yours & PV2 \\
 & {\em demonstrative} & this & PDs \\
 & {\em wh-type} & what & PW \\
 & {\em indefinite} & anyone & PI \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Wh-subtype }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Wh-subtype} & {\em relative} & which & PWR \\
 & {\em other} & which & PWQ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{2ex}
The relative and ``other" wh-type pronouns may be distinguished by
the following examples: {\it the shoes which she bought} (PWR); {\it
Which shoes did she buy?} (PWQ).\\

The ``other" (non-relative) category includes interrogative and
exclamatory pronouns and determiners. As these subtypes are difficult
to distinguish automatically, it is convenient to bring them together
under a single value ``other".



\subsubsection{Person }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf  Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf  Person} & {1st person} & I & PPs1N \\
 & {2nd person} & you & PP2 \\
 & {3rd person} & she & PPs3NF \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf  Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf  Number} & {\em singular} & someone, it & PIs, PPs3 \\
 & {\em plural} & few, they & PIp, PPp3N \\
\hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Gender }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}  &  {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Gender} & {\em masculine} & him & PPs3OM \\
 & {\em feminine} & her & PPs3OF \\
 & {\em neuter} & its & PVs3U \\
 & {\em common} & anyone & PIs \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{2ex}
The common gender pronouns such as {\it anyone} have personal reference, but
are neutral between masculine and feminine.

\subsubsection{Case }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
 {\bf Case} & {\em nominative} & they & PPp3N \\
 & {\em oblique} & them & PPp3O \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
Personal pronouns in the oblique case ({\it me, them}, etc) are used as
objects, as prepositional complements, and also in some other functions.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\subsubsection{Type}


CELEX distinguishes 10 subclasses of pronouns:\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Type  } &        {\it personal   } & ik      &PRON {\bf pers}   \\
\hline
                     & {\it reciprocal } & elkaar  &PRON {\bf wkg.}   \\
\hline
                     & {\it reflexive  } & zich    &PRON {\bf wknd.}   \\
\hline
                     & {\it possessive } & mijn    &PRON {\bf bez.}   \\
\hline
                     & {\it demonstrative}& dit     &PRON {\bf aanw.}  \\
\hline
                     & {\it relative     }& wat     &PRON {\bf betr.}  \\
\hline
                     & {\it indefinite   }& geen    &PRON {\bf onbep.} \\
\hline
                     & {\it interrogative}& wie?    &PRON {\bf vraag.} \\
\hline
                     & {\it exclamatory  }& wat!    &PRON {\bf uitr.} \\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}
\subsubsection{Gender}


A gender value tag set is applicable to Dutch for Personal, Demonstrative,
Possessive,
Interrogative, Reflexive and Relative Pronouns, but is not found in the CELEX
tagset.
{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table} !\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}   & {\it masculine} &  zijn (vader)    & Masc  \\
\hline
               & {\it feminine}  &  haar (vader)   & Fem    \\
\hline
               & {\it neuter}    &  welk (boek) &Neut\\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

Gender of pronouns is very important for contextual disambiguation of gender
ambiguities. See Noun.\\

\subsubsection{Number}

Number is applicable to Dutch Articles and Demonstrative, Reflexive, Relative
and
Interrogative Pronouns, but is not in the CELEX tagset. \\

{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table} !\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}         &{\it singular} &  het (huis)& Sing\\
                     &               & (het huis) dat& Sing\\
\hline
                     &{\it plural} & de (huizen)&Plur\\
                     &             & (de huizen) die&Plur\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

\subsubsection{Case}

Case is only applicable to Dutch in some archaic forms still surviving in the
language
in idiomatic expressions (Articles, Relative, Personal and Interrogative
Pronouns). It is
only present in the CELEX Wordforms Lexicon. The tags are the same as for Nouns:
\\

Ge: Genitive singular: {\it des, dezer, harer} etc. \\
Gm: Genitive plural: {\it aller, hunner, onzer} \\
De: Dative singular: {\it aller, den, der, dien} \\
Dm: Dative plural: {\it haren, hunnen, mijnen, onzen, uwen, zijnen}.\\

\subsubsection{Function}

There is no Function
value tag set in CELEX. The table of the German application is
not
applicable to Dutch.\\

{\it   The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table} !\\
\\
The feature Function does not apply to all pronouns.\\
\\
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Function      } & {\it attributive} & deze (auto)     &    Attrib\\
\hline
                     &{\it predicative  }& (Dat is) het       &   Pred\\
\hline
                     &{\it adverbial    }& Hoe (werkt dat?)    &   Adv\\
\hline
                     &{\it nominal      }& (Het) mijine        &   Nom\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

The value {\it Predicative\/} might prove redundant since predicatively used
pronouns might
turn out to be only nominal. This can be an L2 tag.
\newpage
%% PRONOUN, DETERMINER:

\subsection{Application to Spanish}
The Eurotra dictionaries count pronouns as nouns. Among all the attributes
used to describe nouns the following refer to pronouns:

-- ``Nform", which serves to distinguish between pronouns
(valued pro or cli) and ``normal" nouns (valued norm).\\

-- ``dtype", which helps to distinguish between possesive and
non-possesive pronouns.\\

-- ``whmor", used to distinguish between relative pronouns (valued
as rel) and interrogative pronouns (valued as int) from the rest of
the nominals (valued none).\\

By means of these three attributes we can distinguish between:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Ex. & Nform    & Dtype           &  Whmor   &``class"\\
\hline \hline
casa & normal & non-poss & none & ``normal" noun\\
yo & pro & non-poss & none & personal pro\\
este & pro & non-poss & none & demonstrative pro\\
alg\'{u}n  & pro & non-poss & none & indefinite pro\\
mi & pro & poss &   none & possesive pro\\
mio & pro & poss &   none & possesive pro\\
cuyo & pro & poss &   rel & relative pro\\
quien & pro & non-poss & rel & relative pro\\
qui\'{e}n & pro & non-poss & int & interrogative pro\\
me & cli & non-poss & none & clitic\\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip

\subsubsection{Type}

{\bf Demonstrative: PD}\\

Only the attributes Number and Gender are pertinent to Spanish
pronominal demonstratives.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case &Funct& Pol& Infl &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
3 & sg & masc      &    &   &    &      &        & este \\
\hline
3 & pl & fem      &     &      &      &  &  & aquellas\\
\hline
3 & sg & n &      &    &     &      &     & eso\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
These pronominals reflect deictic degree of remoteness, which is not,
however, coded in ET-ES dictionaries.\\

As for ``person", these pronominals (coded in ET-ES dictionaries as
``nouns") are forced to have a person attribute valued as ``third", due to
verbal agreement.\\


{\bf Possessive: PP}\\

The attributes pertinent to Spanish pronominal possesives are:
Number, Gender, Person and Possessor.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case &Funct& Pol& Infl &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
3/1 & sg     & masc  & sg   &   &    &      &        & (el) mio \\
\hline
3/2 & pl  & fem         &sg      &  &    &  &  & (las) tuyas\\
\hline
3/3 & sg& masc  & pl   &      &   &      &     & (los) suyos\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
``Number" refers to possedee referent. Agreement is established w.r.t this
attribute. References to possessor number are made via lexical
variation (except when the possessor is third person: "suyo").\\

As for the attribute ``person", these pronominals (coded in ET-ES
dictionaries as ``nouns") have a person attribute valued as ``third" by
default since they agree with third person verb forms despite the
grammatical person of their referent.\\


{\bf Indefinite: PI}\\

These are: ``alguien", ``nadie", ``quienquiera", ``qualquiera", ``uno", ``alguno",
``ninguno", ``algo", ``nada", and ``otro". All indefinite determiners can
be also used as pronouns. In ET-ES dictionaries this category is
split into nouns, nform=pronouns, and the category ``quantifier", e.g.:
``nada", ``nadie", ``todos/as".\\

These are variable in gender and number except for ``alguien", ``nadie"
and ``nada".\\



\subsubsection{WH-Type}

{\bf Interrogative}\\

These are: ``qu\'{e}, cu\'{a}l, qui\'{e}n and cu\'{a}nto".

All of them inflect for number except for ``qu\'{e}"; and only ``cu\'{a}nto/a"
 inflects for gender and number: ``cu\'{a}ntos/as".

In Eurotra dictionaries they are valued as 3rd for person since they
agree, when they are the subject of a sentence, with 3rd person verb forms.\\


{\bf Relative}\\

These are ``que" and ``quien". Only ``quien" inflects for number.\\


{\bf Personal}\\

In Spanish the attributes pertinent to personal pronouns are: person,
gender (except for dative pronouns), number, case and politeness.\\

Case is normally related to grammatical functions, thus nominative
corresponds to subject, accusative to first object, dative to second
object and oblique to those oblique arguments obligatorily introduced
by a preposition. Note that Spanish has oblique synthetic forms such as
``conmigo" (with me).\\

In the following lines we only give examples for the first person
singular forms:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case &Funct& Pol& Infl &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
1 & sg     & c     &     & nom   &   &      &        & yo \\
\hline
1 & sg  & c         &   &acc   &      &  &  & me \\
\hline
1 & sg  & c         &   &dat   &      &  &  & me \\
\hline
1 & sg  & c         &   &obl   &      &  &  & mi \\
\hline
1 & sg  &           &   &obl   &      &  &  & conmigo \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip

{\bf Reflexive Pronouns}\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case &Funct& Pol& Infl &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
1 & sg     &       &     &       &   &      &        & me \\
\hline
2 & sg  &           &   &      &      &  &  & te \\
\hline
3 & sg  &           &   &      &      &  &  & se \\
\hline
1 & pl  &           &   &      &      &  &  & nos\\
\hline
2 & pl  &           &   &      &      &  &  & os      \\
\hline
3 & pl  &           &   &      &      &  &  & se      \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip



{\bf Reciprocal Pronouns} \\

Formally, reciprocal pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns.


\newpage

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

%--------
\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}    &  {\it value}   &  Example    &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf  Type} &  {\it dem}     &  celle-ci   & P{\bf DET}FS \\
\hline
                   &  {\it indf}    &  quiconque  & P{\bf IND}MS \\
\hline
                   &  {\it poss}    &             & (*)         \\
\hline
                   &  {\it int/rel} &  lequel     & P{\bf INT}MS, P{\bf REL}MS
 \\
\hline
{\bf                 } &  {\it pers}    &  tu      & P{\bf PER}2  \\
\hline
                       &  {\it refl}    &  se      & P{\bf REF}MS \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
(*) although possessive pronouns exist in French, they are multiword forms
({\it le n\^{o}tre}),
and therefore are coded as article + noun with the IBMF tagset.



%--------
\subsubsection{wh-Subtype}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}             &  {\it value} &  Example &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf wh-Type} & {\it int}    &  lequel  & P{\bf INT}MS \\
\hline
                            & {\it rel}    &  qui     & P{\bf REL}MS \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
Note that most interrogative pronouns are also relative pronouns in French.

%--------
\subsubsection{Person}

In the IBMF tagset, as in the case of verbs,
the person is numbered 1 to 6.
The coding of an IBMF verb tag into the EAGLES
scheme therefore implies using both the Person and Number information.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute} &  {\it value}  &  Example    &   Tag                    \\
\hline
{\bf Person}    &  {\it 1}      &  je, nous   & PPER{\bf 1}, PPER{\bf 4} \\
\hline
                &  {\it 2}      &  tu, vous   & PPER{\bf 2}, PPER{\bf 5} \\
\hline
                &  {\it 3}      &  il, ils    & PPER{\bf 3}M, PPER{\bf 6}M \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Gender}

Gender applies to all pronouns and determiners in French, although
it can be without a morphological realization,
as in the case of the personal pronouns
of the 1st and 2nd persons ({\it je, tu, nous, vous}).\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}     &  Example        &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}        &    {\it masculine} &  celui          &  PDET{\bf M}S \\
\hline
                    &    {\it feminine}  &  celle          &  PDET{\bf F}S \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Number}

Number applies to all pronouns and determiners in French.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
 \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}    &  Example       &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Number}        &    {\it singular} &  lequel        &  PINTM{\bf S} \\
\hline
                    &    {\it plural}   &  lesquels      &  PINTM{\bf P} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Case}

Pronouns seem to be the only class where the Case attribute
can be used in French.
As in the case of Italian, subject, object and oblique personal pronouns
can be distinguished. Thus the EAGLES classes nom, acc and obl
can be used.
The oblique pronoun is not coded specifically in the IBMF tagset.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
 \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value} &  Example   &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Case}          &    {\it nom}   &  tu        &  PP{\bf ER}2  \\
\hline
                    &    {\it acc}   &  te        &  PP{\bf OB}MS \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
As in the case of reflexive personal pronouns, the IBMF tagset does not
code the person in the object personal pronoun.

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Possessor} (the number of) does not apply to French.
What could apply, as in other Romance languages, is the person
of the possessor.

{\bf Function} and {\bf Inflection type} do not apply to French.

{\bf Politeness} applies to French (the polite ``vous")
but is not coded specifically in the tagset.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         personal    je          p
             demonstrat. celui       d
             indefinite  certain     i
             possessive  le_mien     s
             interrog.   lequel      t
             relative    quel        r
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


Possessive pronouns are  compound  forms only  (``le mien").  The  form
``mien" is an adjective.\\

\subsubsection{Person}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Person       first       je,ma       1
             second      tu,ta       2
             third       il,sa       3
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   cet,il      m
             feminine    cette.elle  f
             neutre      ce          n
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    certain     s
             plural      certains    p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Case         nominative  je          n
             object      me          a
             oblique     moi         o
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}



\vspace{10mm}
For the French pronominal system,
we could use the following mapping to the EAGLES system:\\

Nominative  =   subject `il'\\
Accusative  =   direct object `le'\\
Dative      =   indirect object `lui'\\
Oblique     =   other\\

The category ``other" corresponds to the reinforcement of subject or object
(``Moi, je le dis"), attribute (``C'est moi"), etc.\\

However, this solution splits ``object" into ``direct" and ``indirect", and
this distintion is valid only  for  the 3rd  person pronouns in French
(direct: ``le, la, les"; indirect: ``lui, leur").  Encoding this
distinction
would duplicate all other forms (direct: ``me, te" etc.;  indirect: ``me,
te" etc.).


The following mapping applies readily to French personal pronouns:\\

\begin{tabular}{|| l | l ||}
\hline \hline
subject  &   je, tu, il, elle, nous, vous, ils, elles\\
object   &   me, te, le, la, lui, se, nous, vous, les, leur, se\\
oblique  &   moi, toi, lui, elle, soi, nous, vous, eux, elles, soi\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Possessor}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Possessor    singular    mon         s
             plural      nos         p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
======== ===========================================
Code     Example
======== ===========================================
Ps1fs-s  la_mienne (mienne is not a pronoun)
Ps1fs-p  la_no>tre
Ps1fp-s  les_miennes
Ps1fp-p  les_no>tres
Ps1ms-s  le_mien
Ps1ms-p  le_no>tre
Ps1mp-s  les_miens
Ps1mp-p  les_no>tres

Ps2fs-s  la_tienne
Ps2fs-p  la_vo>tre
Ps2fp-s  les_tiennes
Ps2mp-p  les_vo>tres
Ps2ms-s  le_tien
Ps2ms-p  le_vo>tre
Ps2mp-s  les_tiens
Ps2fp-p  les_vo>tres

Ps3fs-s  la_sienne
Ps3fs-p  la_leur
Ps3fp-s  les_siennes
Ps3fp-p  les_leurs
Ps3ms-s  le_sien
Ps3ms-p  le_leur
Ps3mp-s  les_siens
Ps3mp-p  les_leurs

Pp1-sn-   je
Pp2-sn-   tu
Pp3msn-   il, on
Pp3fsn-   elle
Pp1-pn-   nous
Pp2-pn-   vous
Pp3mpn-   ils
Pp3fpn-   elles

Pp1-sj-   me (-moi after imperative)
Pp2-sj-   te (-toi after imperative)
Pp3msj-   le, se, lui
Pp3fsj-   la, se, lui
Pp3n-j-   en, y
Pp1-pj-   nous
Pp2-pj-   vous
Pp3mpj-   les, se, leur
Pp3fpj-   les, se, leur

Pp1-so-   moi
Pp2-so-   toi
Pp3mso-   lui, soi
Pp3fso-   elle, soi
Pp1-po-   nous
Pp2-po-   vous
Pp3mpo-   eux, soi
Pp3fpo-   elles, soi

Pd-fp--   celles, celles-ci, celles-la'
Pd-fs--   celle, celle-ci, celle-la'
Pd-mp--   ceux, ceux-ci, ceux-la'
Pd-ms--   celui, celui-ci, celui-la'
Pd-n---   ce, ceci, cela,

Pi-fp--   quelques-unes, certaines...
Pi-fs--   aucune, nulle, certaine...
Pi-mp--   quelques-uns, certains...
Pi-ms--   aucun, nul, quelqu'un, certain...

Pr-fp--   lesquelles, desquelles, auxquelles, qui, que, quoi, dont,
Pr-fs--   laquelle, qui, que, quoi, dont, ou
Pr-mp--   lesquels, desquels, auxquels, qui, que, quoi, dont
Pr-ms--   lequel, duquel, auquel, qui, que, quoi, dont

Pt-----   quoi
Pt-fp--   lesquelles, desquelles, auxquelles, qui, que
Pt-fs--   laquelle, qui, que
Pt-mp--   lesquels, desquels, auxquels, qui
Pt-ms--   lequel, duquel, auquel, qui, que
===============================================================
\end{verbatim}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% PRONOUN
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ -------------------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value                      Example     Tag
------------ -------------------------- ----------- ----
Type         demonstrative              isso
             indefinite
             possessive                 meu
             interrogative/relative     qual,que
             personal                   eu
             refl                       me
             recp
             excl                       que
------------ -------------------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

We assume that {\it possessive} applies to Portuguese pronouns. (Nevertheless,
in the Portuguese GENELEX demo lexicon, the value {\it possessive} was
included only at category {\it adjective}. This was due to the following
assumption: if a candidate pronominal item occurs both as a noun phrase
and as a modifier to a full np, it will be categorized as an adjective,
presuming that its np-like realization is describable as an instance of
nominal ellipsis.)

\subsubsection{Person}

As we explained in the section on Verbs, the Portuguese lexicon
adopted the decomposition of the feature {\it person} into the features
{\it person-deixis} and {\it person-conc}. These features are also used
to encode Portuguese personal pronouns.

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Tag
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   ele
             feminine    ela
             neuter
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

The {\it neuter} value is not used in Portuguese.

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Tag
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    ele
             plural      eles
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Tag
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Case         nominative  eu
             genitive    me
             dative      me
             accusative  me
             oblique     mim, comigo
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}
\newpage

\subsection{Application to Danish}

The values used in the lexical specification within the tables below are based
on the EDEMD; however, minor changes have been made here to adapt a few
value names to the EAGLES proposal.  \\


{\bf  Type }\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Type}     & {\it personal}    & jeg   & pron\_{\bf pers}\_sg1\_nom   \\
\hline
               & {\it reflexive}    & sig   & pron\_{\bf  refl}\_sg3/pl3   \\
\hline
               & {\it reciprocal}    & hinanden  & pron\_{\bf  rec}   \\
\hline
               & {\it possessive}    & min   & pron\_{\bf  poss}\_sg1\_com\_sg
 \\
\hline
               & {\it demonstrative}    & denne   & pron\_{\bf  dem}\_com\_sg \\
\hline
               & {\it indefinite}    & nogen   & pron\_{\bf  indef}   \\
\hline
               & {\it relative}    &  hvem  & pron\_{\bf  rel}   \\
\hline
               & {\it wh-type}    & hvilken   & pron\_{\bf  wh}\_sg\_com \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf  Wh-subtype }\\

All pronouns beginning with {\bf hv-} (except `hver' (each)) may function  both
 as
relative and as interrogative pronouns.  The EDEMD specifies  each {\it hv-}
pronoun as both relative and interrogative types without a common supertype like
Wh-subtype. \\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Wh-subtype}                 & {\it  relative}    & hvad   & pron\_{\bf
 rel}
\\
\hline
               & {\it interrogative}    & hvad   & pron\_{\bf  interr}
\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf  Gender}\\

The feature Gender applies to the following types of pronouns: personal
pronoun (only 3rd person singular),  possessive pronouns (see below) and to
the relative/interrogative {\it hvilken}. The only cases were Danish
distinguishes the feminine/masculine genders are the personal and  possessive
pronouns in the third person singular. (In the latter case it
 refers to
the gender (sexus) of the owner.)\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}     & {\it feminine}    &  hun  & pron\_pers\_sg3\_{\bf  fem}
\\
\hline
               & {\it masculine}    & han   & pron\_pers\_sg3\_{\bf  mas}  \\
\hline
             & {\it neuter}    & det   &  pron\_pers\_sg3\_{\bf  neut}   \\
\hline
             & {\it common}    & denne   &  pron\_dem\_sg\_{\bf  com}   \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

{\bf  Number}\\

The feature Number applies to demonstrative, personal, possessive and
reflexive pronouns and to types which can be used in adjective-like functions,
e.g. {\it hvilken}.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Number}     & {\it singular}    & denne   &    pron\_dem\_com\_{\bf  sg}
 \\
\hline
               & {\it plural}    & disse   & pron\_dem\_{\bf  pl}    \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf  Case}\\


The feature Case applies in different ways to personal pronouns and to the
other non-adverbial pronouns.
Personal pronouns have two distinct cases: subjective and objective, i.e.
nominative and oblique cases. The genitive case is covered by the
possessive pronouns.

All other non-adverbial pronouns have non-genitive and genitive forms.  \\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Case}     & {\it nominative}    & hun   &    pron\_pers\_sg3\_fem\_{\bf
nom}  \\
\hline
            & {\it oblique}    & hende   &    pron\_pers\_sg3\_fem\_{\bf  obl}
 \\
\hline
               & {\it non-genitive}    & denne   & pron\_dem\_com\_sg\_{\bf
 ngen}

\\
\hline
               & {\it genitive}    & dennes   & pron\_dem\_com\_sg\_{\bf  gen}
  \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

{\bf  Politeness}\\

Language-specific feature.\\

The polite form is `De', used for addressing  one or more persons, similar to the
personal pronoun of third person plural (`de'), but it is always spelled with
 a
capital D.  However, the appropriate reflexive pronoun used in addressing  is
identical with the oblique case  `Dem', thus deviating from the regular form of
 the
third person plural  `sig'. \\


{\bf Function}\\


The attribute Function is not specified as a lexical property within the
EDEMD and no tagset has yet been elaborated for the corpus annotation of this
feature.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Function}     & {\it nominal}    & hendes (er)   & pron\_pers\_...\_{\bf
nomin}  \\
\hline
               & {\it attributive}    & denne (bil)   & pron\_dem\_...\_{\bf
 attrib}
\\
\hline
               & {\it predicative}    & (bilen er) min   & pron\_poss\_...\_{\bf
  pred}
\\
\hline
               & {\it adverbial}    & hvor   & pron\_wh-type\_{\bf  adverbial}
 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

\newpage

%% PRONOUNS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



\newpage


\subsection{Application to Greek}



The Greek Morphological Lexicon distinguishes pronouns on the
basis of the feature {\bf Type} (e.g. personal, indefinite,
possessive, etc.).\\

It may be noted here that a special category, that of {\bf pou}, has
been created for the codification of the word {\it pou}, which is
highly ambiguous in Greek.  In fact, it may function as an
uninflected relative pronoun, a subordinating conjunction, an
adverb or a particle, while the context does not suffice for
absolutely correct disambiguation purposes. Therefore, to avoid
multiple tagging that would not be resolved, this unique word has
been elevated into a category of its own.\\

In the same way, the category of {\bf enas} includes all uses of
the ambiguous word {\it enas}, one of which is that of the
indefinite pronoun. It is also a numeral and the indefinite
article in Greek.\\

In the following paragraphs, we present all values for the types
of pronouns and the codification relevant to each type in more
detail.\\



\subsubsection{Pronoun Types}

The following table shows the attribute Type and the values it
takes in the Greek Morphological Lexicon.\\

Of the values recognised by the Greek Morphological Lexicon,
the majority are foreseen by the Eagles Level 1 codification
scheme. These are the values {\it dem, pers, poss, indef} and
{\it reflex}. The distinction between interrogative and relative
pronouns is made at the same level, while three language-specific
types of pronouns are coded, namely, definite, clitics
and relative-indefinite pronouns. More details on each of these
types are given in the sections that describe them.\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& ex.& tag \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}&{\it dem  }&ekeinos&Pn{\bf Dm}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it poss }&mou&Pn{\bf Po}01CoSgGe\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it indef }&kapoios&Pn{\bf Id}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it pers }&eghw&Pn{\bf Pe}01CoSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it interr }&poios&Pn{\bf Ir}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it rel }&opoios&Pn{\bf Re}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it reflex }&eautou&Pn{\bf Rf}03MaSgGe\\
\hline
{\bf l-spec}&{\it relindef }&osos&Pn{\bf Ri}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf l-spec}&{\it def }&idhios&Pn{\bf Df}03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\bf l-spec}&{\it clitic }&me&Pn{\bf Cl}01CoSgAc \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Personal Pronouns}


Personal Pronouns in Greek are morphologically marked for
Person, Number and Case; third person pronouns are also marked
for Gender.\\

Two kinds of forms are distinguished : strong and weak pronouns.
Under this type, we only include strong forms; weak forms are
coded as having type ``clitic" (see relevant section below).\\


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{||c||}{\bf \it Personal }& example   & tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}&{\bf Number } &{\bf Gender}&     &        \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  sg   } &{\it  -} & eghw &PnPe01SgNm\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  sg   } &{\it  - } & esu &PnPe02SgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   } &{\it  masc   } & autos &PnPe03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   } &{\it  fem   } & auty &PnPe03FeSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   } &{\it  neuter   } & auto &PnPe03NeSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  pl   } &{\it  -   } &emeis&PnPe01PlNm\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  pl   } &{\it  - } &eseis&PnPe02PlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   } &{\it masc   } &autoi&PnPe03MaPlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   } &{\it fem    } &autes&PnPe03FePlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   } &{\it neuter } &auta&PnPe03NePlNm\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


In the above table, we have given personal pronouns only in the
nominative case. All of them are inflected in the genitive case
(emena, esena, autou, autis, autou, emas, esas, autwn, autwn,
autwn), and the accusative (emena, esena, auton, auti(n), auto,
emas, esas, autous, autes, auta).  Only two forms appear in the
vocative case, namely the second person singular (esu) and
plural (eseis).\\

The value of {\bf Gender} is left unspecified for the first and
second persons, which do not code this feature.\\


\subsubsection{Politeness form}

In Greek, two forms of the second person of the personal pronoun
are used when addressing someone:\\

- the second singular ({\it esu}) in the case of familiarity between
addresser and addressee, and\\

- the second plural ({\it eseis}) for the politeness form.\\

The pronouns naturally agree in number with
the verb. As regards participial constructions, however,
agreement with the verb is overruled by agreement with the sex and
number of the addressee(s):\\

\begin{center}

{\it Eseis eiste haroumen{\bf y} me ta nea;} - fem., sing.\\

\end{center}

The feature of Politeness does not correspond to a specific
attribute in the ILSP Morphological Lexicon.\\


\subsubsection{Reflexive (Pronoun)}

In Greek, the reflexive pronoun is formed periphrastically by
the pronoun ``eautos" preceded by the definite article and
followed by the weak form of the personal pronoun in the
genitive case (e.g. {\it tou eautou mou}). It is inflected only
for two cases, genitive ({\it eautou}) and accusative ({\it
eauto}).\\

In the Greek Morphological Lexicon, we have coded the relevant
forms of the lemma ``eautos" as a noun; when encountered in the
above compound form, it must be recognised as a reflexive
pronoun. The following table shows examples for the values it
must be assigned when found in the genitive case.\\


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{||c|}{\bf \it Reflexive}&example   & tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}&{\bf Number}&{\bf Case} &\multicolumn{2}{|c||}{\it  }\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  sg    }&{\it   gen}& (tou eautou mou) &PnRf01MaSgGe  \\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  sg    } &{\it gen} & (tou eautou sou) &PnRf02MaSgGe  \\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg    } &{\it gen} & (tou eautou tou) &PnRf03MaSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it gen}& (twn eautwn mas) &PnRf01MaPlGe    \\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it gen}& (twn eautwn sas)  &PnRf02MaPlGe    \\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it gen}& (twn eautwn tous) &PnRf03MaPlGe    \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}

\subsubsection{Possessive pronouns}

The weak forms of the genitive case of personal pronouns serve
as possessive pronouns for Greek. They are distinguished
according to the Person they refer to and code the Number of the
possessor (one or more). The third person in the singular number
also distinguishes the Gender of the possessor, while in the
plural number common form covers all three genders.\\



\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{3}{||c|}{\bf \it Possessive}&\multicolumn{2}{|c||}{\it }\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}&{\bf Number}&{\bf Gender} & example & tag       \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  sg    } & {\it  masc-fem} & mou &PnPo01CoSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it  masc-fem} & mas &PnPo01CoPlGe\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  sg    } & {\it  masc-fem} & sou &PnPo02CoSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it  masc-fem} & sas &PnPo02CoPlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg    } & {\it  masc} & tou &PnPo03MaSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg    } & {\it  fem} & tys &PnPo03FeSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg    } & {\it  neut} & tou &PnPo03NeSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it  masc} & tous &PnPo03MaPlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it  fem} & tous &PnPo03FePlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl    } & {\it  masc} & tous &PnPo03NePlGe\\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}



In certain cases, most usually for emphasis, the possessive
pronoun is formed periphrastically on the basis of the above
pronoun preceded by the adjective ``dhikos" which must agree in
gender, number and case with the possessed objects:\\


\begin{center}

{\it ta dhik{\bf a} mas vivlia} - neuter, pl., nom/acc\\
{\it oi dhik{\bf es} mas eikones} - fem., pl., nom\\

\end{center}


Information on the possessor is not specifically coded by an
attribute in the Morphological Lexicon.\\





\subsubsection{Demonstrative pronouns}

Five demonstrative pronouns are recognised in Greek, all of
which are inflected for gender, number and case, agreeing with
the object referred to. The following table offers examples for all
of them in the singular nominative case of the masculine form.\\




\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Demonstrative} & example & tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &autos & PnDm03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &toutos & PnDm03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &ekeinos & PnDm03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &tetoios & PnDm03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &tosos & PnDm03MaSgNm\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}




The first three of the above demonstratives may occur either on
their own or followed by the nouns to which they refer, in which
case the nouns are preceded by an article.  The last two serve
only as modifiers of nouns and do not have an independent
nominal status - they never appear alone:\\

\begin{center}

{\it autos (o anthrwpos)}\\
but\\
{\it tetoios anthrwpos} \\

\end{center}

The type of deixis is not encoded, although it is implicit in
each pronoun.\\

One of the pronouns, {\it toutos}, is more common in everyday
use in spoken language, rather than in the written/formal usage
of Greek.




\subsubsection{Indefinite pronouns}





\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Indefinite} & example & tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &kanenas & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &kapoios & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &merikoi & PnId03MaPlNm\\
\hline
                    &kati & PnId03NeSgIc\\
\hline
                    &katiti & PnId03NeSgIc\\
\hline
                    &tipote & PnId03NeSgIc\\
\hline
                    &kamposos & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &kathe & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &kathenas & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline
                    &katheti & PnId03NeSgIc\\
\hline
                    &allos & PnId03MaSgNm\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


The first indefinite pronoun, {\it kanenas}, does not form a
plural and has two forms for the masculine gender:

\begin{center}

{\it kanenas} but also {\it kaneis} \\

\end{center}

Both {\it kanenas} and {\it tipote} have a negative as well as
an indefinite meaning:\\

\begin{center}

{\it kanenas} = nobody or somebody\\
{\it tipote} = nothing or something\\

\end {center}

They have only the indefinite interpretation in affirmative and
interrogative sentences, and they have both interpretations in negative
sentences and answers to interrogatives:\\

\begin{center}

{\it Eheis tipote;} \\
but\\
{\it dhen ehei tipote pou na tou pighainei}\\

\end {center}

The two above pronouns, along with {\it kati}, {\it katiti},
{\it tipote}, {\it kathe} and {\it katheti} are uninflected. The
pronoun {\it merikoi}, on the other hand, does not form the
singular, but inflects for case.\\

All other pronouns are inflected as adjectives (i.e. they mark
gender, number and case).\\

Most of them function both as pronouns and pronominal
adjectives. The pronoun {\it kathe} functions only as a
pronominal adjective; its ``respective" pronoun is {\it
kathenas}.\\




\subsubsection{Interrogative Pronouns}


Three interrogative pronouns are distinguished for Greek.\\




\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\it \bf Interrogative}& example &tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &ti    & PnIr03NeSgIc \\
\hline
                    &poios & PnIr03MaSgNm \\
\hline
                    &posos & PnIr03MaSgNm \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


As indicated by the values of its tag, the first pronoun, {\it
ti}, is indeclinable, while the other two are inflected for
gender, number and case, agreeing with the object they refer to.
They are all used as pronouns and pronominal adjectives.\\








\subsubsection{Relative pronouns}

Two relative pronouns exist for Greek, one of which, namely the
indeclinable {\it pou}, is encoded in the Morphological Lexicon
as a separate category. The other pronoun is {\it opoios}, which
is always preceded by the definite article and agrees in gender,
number and case with its referent; it is considered more
``formal" than ``pou". Again, in the following table, only the
nominative case of the singular of the masculine is given.\\




\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Relative} & example & tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &opoios& PnRe03MaSgNm\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}





\subsubsection{Relative-Indefinite Pronouns}




\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Relative-Indefinite} & example & tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &osos    & PnRi03MaSgNm \\
\hline
                    &o,ti    & PnRi03NeNvIc \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\vspace{15mm}


Contrary to {\it o,ti}, which is indeclinable, {\it osos} is
inflected for gender, number and case.\\


\subsubsection{Definite Pronouns}





\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Definite} & example & tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &idhios    & PnDf03MaSgNm \\
\hline
                    &monos    & PnDf03NeSgNm \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\vspace{15mm}


The definite pronouns are actually adjectives which function as
pronouns when the following conditions are fulfilled:\\

- {\it idhios} must be preceded by the definite article, and it
must follow or precede the noun it refers to, which must
have the definite article:\\

\begin{center}

{\it Eghw i idhia tha to kanw}\\
or
{\it O idhios o Takys tha to kanei}\\

\end {center}

- {\it monos} must appear without an article and must be
followed by one of the possessive pronouns:\\


\begin{center}

{\it Efughe monos tou}

\end {center}


\subsubsection{Clitic Pronouns}

These are actually the weak forms of the personal pronouns.
They are morphologically marked for Person, Number and Case. For
certain cases, there exists no weak form, as observed in the
following table.\\


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{4}{||c||}{\bf \it Personal }& example   & tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Person}&{\bf Number }&{\bf Case}&{\bf Gender}&     &        \\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  - } & mou &PnCl01SgGe\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  - } & me &PnCl01SgAc\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  - } & sou &PnCl02SgGe\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  - } & se &PnCl02SgAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it nom   }&{\it  masc   } & tos &PnCl03MaSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  masc   } & tou &PnCl03MaSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  masc   } & ton &PnCl03MaSgAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it nom   }&{\it  fem   } & ty &PnCl03FeSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  fem   } & tys &PnCl03FeSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  fem   } & ty(n) &PnCl03FeSgAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it nom   }&{\it  neuter   } & to &PnCl03NeSgNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  neuter   } & tou &PnCl03NeSgGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  sg   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  neuter   } & to &PnCl03NeSgAc\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  - } & mas &PnCl01PlGe\\
\hline
{\it 1     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  - } & mas &PnCl01PlAc\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it gen   }&{\it  - } & sas &PnCl02PlGe\\
\hline
{\it 2     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it acc   }&{\it  - } & sas &PnCl02PlAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it nom   }&{\it masc   } &toi&PnCl03MaPlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it gen   }&{\it masc   } &tous&PnCl03MaPlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it acc   }&{\it masc   } &tous&PnCl03MaPlAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it nom   }&{\it fem    } &tes&PnCl03FePlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it gen   }&{\it fem    } &tous&PnCl03FePlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it acc   }&{\it fem    } &tis/tes&PnCl03FePlAc\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it nom   }&{\it neuter } &ta&PnCl03NePlNm\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it gen   }&{\it neuter } &tous&PnCl03NePlGe\\
\hline
{\it 3     }&{\it  pl   }&{\it acc   }&{\it neuter } &ta&PnCl03NePlAc\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


As shown in the above table, the {\bf Gender} feature is left
unspecified for the first and second persons, given that it is
not applicable to them.\\

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% DETERMINER
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Determiner}
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf P}&Type &whType&P &G &N&Case&Pos  \\
\hline \hline
M&  &    & 1&m&s &  &  \\
U&  &    & 2&f&p &  &  \\
L&  &    & 3&n&  &  &  \\
T&  &    &  & &  &  &  \\
\hline
G&dem &  &1 &m   &s&  &sg   \\
E&int &  &2 &f   &p&  &pl   \\
N&poss&  &3 &n   & &  &     \\
E&card&  &  &    & &  &     \\
L&indf&  &  &    & &  &     \\
E&def &  &  &    & &  &     \\
X&rel &  &  &    & &  &     \\
 &part&  &  &    & &  &     \\
 &excl&  &  &    & &  &     \\
\hline
A&  &    &1  &m   &s&  &  \\
l&  &    &2  &f   &p&  &  \\
D&  &    &3  &n   & &  &  \\
\hline
N&poss    &   &1 &m   &s  &nom &\\
E&dem     &   &2 &f   &p  &gen &\\
R&indf    &int&3 &mf  &sp &dat &\\
C&int/rel &rel&  &    &   &acc &\\
\hline
L&dem    &int&1 &m   &s  &nom&sg\\
e&indf   &rel&2 &f   &p  &gen&pl \\
e&poss   &   &3 &n   &   &dat&   \\
c&int/rel&   &  &c   &   &acc&    \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
E-L0   &\multicolumn{7}{|c||}{{\bf DETERMINER}}\\
\hline
E&dem    &   &1 & m  & s&nom &sg \\
 &indf   &   &2 & f  & p&gen &pl \\
L&poss   &   &3 & n  &  &dat &   \\
1&int/rel&   &  &    &  &acc &   \\
\hline
2&  &int &   & & &    &   \\
a&  &rel &   & & &    &    \\
 &  &excl&   & & &    &    \\
\hline
2&  & &  &It c &It n   &    &    \\
b&  & &  &   &   &    &    \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}

\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

One of the major problems presented by this category
is that the
Romance tradition makes use of the
label Pronominal
Adjective, whereas other languages (English) use Determiner.

The two classes are not mappable one on to the other.
This is a crucial problem, involving the different behaviour
of the Determiners and Pronominal Adjectives.

The choice of calling e.g.
{\it some} and {\it all} respectively
Determiner and Predeterminer in English (both Indefinite Pronominal
Adjectives in the Italian tradition)
rests on
their particular distribution in context: {\it some children, all
the children}, and this can also work in Italian: {\it alcuni ragazzi, tutti i
ragazzi}. However, if calling Determiners the possessives in English works for
their complementary distribution wrt the article
({\it my book, the book}), this is not the case in
Italian, because {\it
il libro} does not have correspondence in {\it *mio libro}.
(As far as Italian possessives
are concerned, a complementary distribution with article
is found only with a
closed number of family nouns: {\it mio/il
padre, mia/la madre, mio/il
fratello, mia/la sorella}).

The particular behaviour of possessives perhaps
influenced the GENELEX choice
to opt for a separate Determiner
category, as well as the Adjective (where Pronominal Adjectives are
also included) and Pronoun categories.
The situation in the GENELEX model is as follows:
\begin{center}
          {\it le n\^{o}tre}                PRON\\
          {\it n\^{o}tre chien }             DET\\
          {\it le chien est n\^{o}tre}      ADJ\\
\end{center}
This fact implies the presence of the values typical of Pronominal
Adjective in the table of the Adjective category, among the values
of the feature Type.\\

In NERC, the problem of the use of different tags, i.e.
Determiner and Pronominal Adjective, in different traditions has been
raised, and the proposal has been to opt for the label Determiner, without
any further functional distinction.

The TEI work-group on annotation (TEI
AI1W2 1991) has made the choice of inserting Determiners in the Adjective
category, with the feature `pronominal'.\\

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

In Italian,
both corpus
and dictionary distinguish Determiners according to the feature
Type (e.g. indefinite,
demonstrative, possessive, etc.).\\

In the following sections, each Type will be discussed in detail.

\subsubsection{Type and wh-Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& ex.& tag \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}&{\it dem  }&questo (libro)&DD/ms\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it poss }&mio (padre)   &DP/ms\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it indf }&ogni (uomo)&DI/ms\\
\hline
{\bf wt-Type}&{\it int  }&quale (domanda)&DT/ns\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it rel  }&il quale (uomo) &DR/ms\\
\hline
{\bf }&{\it excl }&quanto (sole)!&DE/ms\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

\subsubsection{Possessive}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Possessive}  &example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                      &(i) miei (amici)& DP/mp \\
                      & mio (cugino) & DP/ms\\
\hline
                      &(la) nostra (casa)& DP/fs \\
                      &(i) nostri (cugini)& DP/mp \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

In English, Possessives are classified as
Determiners on the basis of
their complementary distribution wrt the article
({\it my book, the book}). This kind of distribution in
Italian
works only with a
closed number of family nouns, used in the singular: {\it mio/il
padre, mia/la madre, mio/il
fratello, mia/la sorella} (see the table above).
Other nouns
do not show this correspondence, e.g {\it il libro / *mio libro}.\\
At the level of encoding, this different behaviour is not represented.

Possessives are inflected for Number and Gender and agree with the noun;
they are distinguished according to the Person
which is referred to (see the table for Pronouns above).\\

{\it Scrivo con la tua} DP/fs {\it penna, perche' non ho la mia}\\

The two
Italian possessives: {\it altrui} (of other people)
and {\it proprio} (own) can be used in determiner function:\\
\begin{center}
{\it spende il denaro altrui} DP/nn, {\it non il proprio} \\
{\it occorre dare del proprio} DP/ms {\it denaro}, non dell'altrui\\
\end{center}

As already mentioned for Possessive Pronouns,
information about the possessor is not encoded in the Italian lexicon
or corpus, but it can be inferred from the lemma.

\subsubsection{Demonstrative}
\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Demonstrative}  &example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                         &questo (uomo)& DD/ms \\
\hline
                         &quelle (donne)   & DD/fp \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}



\subsubsection{Indefinite}


\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Indefinite} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &ogni (uomo)  & DI/ms \\
\hline
                    &alcune (donne)   & DI/fp \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Italian Indefinites are inflected for Gender and Number.\\

They cover the
English class of Quantifiers;
some English practices (Brown) usually encode some quantifiers
as Predeterminers, (e.g. {\it all the girls}), on the basis of their
peculiar
behaviour, i.e. they precede the determiner. {\it Tutto} in Italian has
the same behaviour, which is not annotated:\\
\begin{center}
{\it tutte le ragazze} DI/fp\\
\end{center}
Some can only be pronominal adjectives, i.e. determiners in this proposal:\\
{\it ogni, qualche, qualunque, qualsiasi, qualsivoglia}.
\begin{center}
{\it ogni colpa si sconta}  DI/fs
\end{center}

{\it Alcuno, ciascuno, taluno, nessuno, tutto, alquanto,
poco, molto, troppo, tanto}
can have both the pronoun and pronominal
adjective/determiner function:\\

\begin{center}
{\it ho letto tutto il libro}    DI/ms\\
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Interrogative}


\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\it \bf Interrogative}& example &It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &quanto (zucchero)?& DT/ms \\
\hline
                    &quale (libro)? & DT/ns \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Interrogatives are inflected for Gender and Number.\\

{\it Che, quale, quanto} can be either pronouns or
pronominal adjectives/determiners:
\begin{center}
{\it  Quale vestito scegli?}           DT/ns\\
\end{center}



\subsubsection{Exclamatory}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Exclamatory} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &quanto (vento)!& DE/ms \\
\hline
                    &che (orrore)!& DE/nn \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

{\it Che, quale, quanto} can also have exclamatory value:
\begin{center}
        {\it quante persone hanno aderito!} DE/fp
\end{center}

\subsubsection{Relatives}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf \it Relative} & example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
                    &il quale&DR/ms \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

{\it Il quale} is inflected for Gender and Number, and
can be used in adjectival function:
\begin{center}
          {\it ..., il quale film mi e' piaciuto molto} DR/ms
\end{center}

It should be noted that it
constitutes a bigram and should be encoded as a multiword expression.


\newpage

% +++++ BEGIN GERMAN (add following text) +++++++++++++++++++++++++++

\subsection{Application to German}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it demonstrative} & dieses (Buch) & {\bf PDEMAT}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it indefinite} & irgendein (Buch) & {\bf PROAT}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it possessive}  & mein (Buch)  & {\bf PPOSAT}:Neut.Nom.Sg\\
\hline
& {\it interrogative} & welches (Buch) ? & {\bf PWAT}:Neut.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}
& {\it masculine} & dieser (Mann) & PDEMAT:3.Sg.Nom.{\bf Masc} \\
\hline
& {\it feminine}  & meine (Mutter) & PPOSAT:{\bf Fem}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it neuter}    & welches (Buch) & PWAT:{\bf Neut}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}
& {\it singular} & kein (Mensch) & PROAT:Masc.Nom.{\bf Sg} \\
\hline
& {\it plural}   & welche (Kinder) & PWAT:Neut.Nom.{\bf Pl} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Case}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}
& {\it nominative} & kein (Mensch) & PROAT:Masc.{\bf Nom}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it genitive}   & dieses (Mannes)  & PDEMAT:Masc.{\bf Gen}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it dative}     & keinem (Menschen)  & PROAT:Masc.{\bf Dat}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it accusative} & welchen (Mann)? & PWS:Masc.{\bf Akk}.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Possessor}

The feature {\em possessor\/} is not encoded in the IMS-Tagset. It can be
determined from the lemma.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Type} & {\em possessive} & your & DV2 \\
 & {\em demonstrative} & those & DDp \\
 & {\em wh-type} & what & DW \\
 & {\em indefinite} & every & DIs \\
\hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Person}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags\\
\hline
{\bf Person} & {\em first} & my, our & DV1ps, DV1pp\\
 & {\em second} & your & DV2\\
 & {\em third} & his, her, their & DV3psM, DV3psF, DV3ppN\\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
For determiners, as for pronouns, distinctions of person, gender and
number sometimes apply.  Person applies to possessive determiners, and
gender applies to third person singular possessive determiners.

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags\\
\hline
{\bf Gender} & {\em masculine} & his & DV3psM\\
 & {\em feminine} & her & DV3psF\\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

Number applies to demonstrative determiners and, in some cases, to
indefinite determiners:\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags\\
\hline
{\bf Number} & {\em singular} & this, much & DDs, DIs\\
 & {\em plural} & these, many & DDp, DIp\\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
The number of the possessor is also distinguishable for possessive
determiners.  However, for the present tagset, this attribute is
omitted, being unimportant as an indicator of syntactic function.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Spanish}

Case does not apply to Spanish determiners. As for the other features,
each Type is discussed in detail in the following sections.\\

{\bf Demonstrative: DD}\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case  &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
& sg & masc             &      &        & este (libro)\\
\hline
& pl & fem           &      &      & esas (casas)\\
\hline
& sg & masc            &      &     & aquel (chico)\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
Only Number and Gender are pertinent attributes for Determiner
demonstratives.\\

These determiners reflect deictic degree of remoteness, which is not,
however, coded in ET-ES dictionaries.\\


{\bf Possessive: DP}\\

*Possessive Determiners need the same attributes as the Pronominal
Possessives. They differ in that in this case we have determiners valued
as common wrt gender and possessor:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
Pers    & Number   & Gender &Pos & Case &Ex.\\
\hline \hline
1 & sg     & c     & sg   &    &    mi (libro) \\
\hline
2 & sg  & fem         &pl   &   &       vuestra (casa)\\
\hline
3 & sg& c  & c   &     &     su (libro)\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
In this case, the attribute ``person" refers to semantic person. This
attribute is not coded in ET-ES dictionaries.\\


{\bf Indefinite DI}\\

The main ones are: {\it alg\'{u}n, ning\'{u}n, cierto, varios, cualquier,
 poco,
bastante, mucho, demasiado, dem\'{a}s, cuanto, todo, cada, tal,otro, un,
tanto}.

They are variable in gender except for {\it bastante}, {\it cualquiera}, {\it
cada},
{\it dem\'{a}s} and {\it tal}, and variable in number except for {\it cada},
 {\it demas} and
{\it varios}.\\

{\bf Interrogative}\\

These are: {\it qu\'{e} (libros), cu\'{a}l (caja),  and cu\'{a}nto (dinero)}.

{\it ``Qu\'{e}} is invariant in gender and number. Only {\it cu\'{a}nto} inflects
 for
gender.\\

{\bf Relative}\\

The Spanish relative determiner inflects for number and gender ({\it cuyo, cuya,
cuyos and cuyas}).


\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

\subsubsection{Determiner type}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}       &  {\it value}    &  Example             &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Type} &  {\it dem,poss} &  cette,ma (maison)   & {\bf DETR}FS \\
\hline
                      &  {\it indf}     &  aucune (maison)     & {\bf ADJI}FS \\
\hline
                      &  {\it int}      &  quelle (maison)     & {\bf DINT}FS \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
Note that the IBMF tagset only distinguishes two determiner types:
interrogative and others (demonstrative, possessive, and articles).
The indefinite determiner is classified among the adjectives in the said tagset.


\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Det.-Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         demonstrat. ce          d
             indefinite  certain     i
             possessive  mon         p
             interrogat. quel        t
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Person}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Person       first       ma          1
             second      ta          2
             third       sa          3
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   cet,il      m
             feminine    cette,elle  f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    certain     s
             plural      certains    p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Possessor}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Possessor    singular    mon         s
             plural      nos         p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
========= =============================================
Tag       Example
========= =============================================
Ds1fss--  ma (tasse)
Ds1fsp--  notre (tasse)
Ds1fps--  mes (tasses)
Ds1fpp--  nos (tasses)
Ds1mss--  mon (livre)
Ds1msp--  notre (livre)
Ds1mps--  mes (livres)
Ds1mpp--  nos (livres)

Ds2fss--  ta (tasse)
Ds2fsp--  votre (tasse)
Ds2fps--  tes (tasses)
Ds2fpp--  vos (tasses)
Ds2mss--  ton (livre)
Ds2msp--  votre (livre)
Ds2mps--  tes (livres)
Ds2mpp--  vos (livres)

Ds3fss--  sa (tasse)
Ds3fsp--  leur (tasse)
Ds3fps--  ses (tasses)
Ds3fpp--  leurs (tasses)
Ds3mss--  son (livre)
Ds3msp--  leur (livre)
Ds3mps--  ses (livres)
Ds3mpp--  leurs (livres)

Dd-fs---  cette
Dd-ms---  cet, ce
Dd-fp---  ces
Dd-mp---  ces

Dn-fs---  aucune, nulle, certaine, toute, chacune...
Dn-ms---  aucun, nul, certain, tout, chacun...
Dn-fp---  certaines, toutes...
Dn-mp---  certains, tous...

Dt-fs---  quelle
Dt-ms---  quel
Dt-fp---  quelles
Dt-mp---  quels
Di-fs---  aucune, nulle, certaine, toute, chacune...
Di-ms---  aucun, nul, certain, tout, chacun...
Di-fp---  certaines, toutes...
Di-mp---  certains, tous...
========= ======= =============================================
\end{verbatim}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}

As is easily observable, articles are included under the
category {\it determiner} in the Portuguese application:

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ---------------------------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value                              Example     Tag
------------ ---------------------------------- ----------- ----
Type         demonstrative
             indefinite                         um
             possessive
             interrogative/relative
=============================================== =========== ====
l-specif     definite                           o
             quantifier                         algum
             cardinal                           um
----------------------------------------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}


\subsubsection{Wh-Type}
Not used in the Portuguese application.

\subsubsection{Person}

Not used in the Portuguese application.

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   um
             feminine    uma
             neuter
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    algum
             plural      alguns
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}
Not used in the Portuguese application

\subsubsection{Possessor}
Not used in the Portuguese application.


%------------------------------------------
\newpage


\subsection{Application to Danish}

The label Determiner as used within the present EAGLES proposal obviously covers
a number of lexical items classified as pronouns and quantifiers.
Traditional Danish grammars and dictionaries do not operate with a common
designation for the determination function. The application of the label
Determiner as a member of the Danish tagset for corpus annotation has
not yet been clarified.

In Danish, from a functional point of view,  members of  certain word classes,
 like
pronoun or noun (viz. subclasses specifier and classifier), can be considered as
determiners: \\

{\bf  Determiner type}\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Type}     & {\it demonstrative}    & denne   & pron\_dem\_com\_ sg
\\
\hline
               & {\it possessive}    &  min    & pron\_poss\_sg1\_com\_sg   \\
\hline
              & {\it quantifier}    &  begge    &  quant   \\
\hline
              & {\it ordinal}    &  tredie    &  ord  \\
\hline
              & {\it cardinal}    &  tre    &  card  \\
\hline
              & {\it specifier}    &  halvdelen (af)    &  spec \\
\hline
              & {\it classifier}    &  en gruppe    &  class \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

Although articles and possessive genitives also function as determiners, they
 have
not been included in the table above.  We follow here an approach wherein
 articles
(as a separate category) are distinguished from determiners, and possessive
genitives do not constitute a category as such.\\

%------------------------------------------
%% DETERMINERS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage




\subsection{Application to Greek}


For the classification of the items that fall under the
categories of Pronouns and Determiners, the ILSP Morphological
Lexicon followed the traditional grammar distinctions. Although,
as mentioned in the relevant section, ``absolute" pronouns can be
considered to be the only personal and demonstrative pronouns, we have
included (in a broad interpretation of the term) all adjectival
pronouns as well.\\

Furthermore, it is the case that certain ``indefinite pronouns"
have a strong quantificational character; such cases are
``arketoi" (several), ``merikoi" or ``kamposoi" (some), ``kanenas"
(none). Based on their distributional behaviour, we could
classify them as Determiners: they appear immediately before the Noun,
or alone, they are never modified by degree adverbials, they are
never introduced by articles, etc.  However, we opted for the
traditional classification of all these items under the category
of Pronouns. Thus, since there is no attribute available for
their codification (no tag assigned), no tables are presented in
this section.\\



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% ARTICLES
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Article}


\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf ARTICLE} & Type  & Gen  & Num     &Case    \\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX      &def     & m   & s       & nom    \\
              &indf    & f   & p       & gen    \\
              &        & n   &         & dat     \\
              &        &     &         & acc     \\
              &        &     &         & voc     \\
\hline
GENELEX       &(*in Det)&     &        &       \\
\hline
              &def    & m    &s    & \\
AlethDic      &indf    &f    &p    & \\
              &       & n    &     & \\
\hline
              & def     &m        &s        &nom                   \\
NERC          & indf    &f        &p        &gen                   \\
              &         &mf       &sp       &dat                   \\
              &         &         &         &acc                   \\
\hline
              & def     &m        &s        &nom                   \\
              & indf    &f        &p        &gen                   \\
Leech         &         &n        &         &dat                   \\
              &         &c        &         &acc                   \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{4}{|c||}{{\bf ARTICLE}}\\
\hline
       & def         & m      &s  &nom                    \\
EAG-L1 & indf        & f      &p  &gen                    \\
       &             & n      &   &dat                    \\
       &             &        &   &acc                    \\
\hline
EAG-L2a &          &         &     &                          \\
\hline
EAG-L2b &          &It c     &It n  &      \\
       &          &         &      &      \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}
\newpage
\subsection{Comments}
Articles constitute a separate category, as is found in many lexicons
and annotation practices, even though, as already pointed out in section 5,
in others (e.g. Penn) they are found incorporated into the Determiner category.
\\

The separation of the two categories is not a problem, since, as Articles
form a very restricted closed class, they can also easily be distinguished from
Determiners in the latter cases, and no
serious mapping problem arises.\\
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}
Article traditionally constitutes a class of its own.

\subsubsection{Article}

The class of Articles has a finite list
of members. The two possible Types
`definite' and `indefinite' are marked in the lexicon (RD and
RI respectively), while in the
corpus they are not encoded. The
other pertinent features are Number and Gender.\\



\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c||}{\bf Article }&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\it        }&
It.tag\\
\hline \hline
\multicolumn{2}{||c||}{}& \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\bf Type        } & \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}& {\bf Number}& {\it definite} & {\it indefinite}& \\
\hline
{\it m     }&{\it  s    }   & il, lo & un, uno & RD/ms  \\
\hline
{\it n     }&{\it  s    }   & l'     &         & RD/ns  \\
\hline
{\it m     }&{\it  p    }   & i, gli   &        & RD/mp\\
\hline
{\it f     }&{\it  s    }   & la    & una/un'  & RI/fs \\
\hline
{\it f     }&{\it  p    }   & le  &         &RI/fp\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

{\it Un, il} are graphical variants of {\it uno, lo}, used before words
beginning with simple consonant, or beginning with a consonantal group plus
{\it l, r : un trono, il cloro} (not if the the group of consonants begins with
{\it s}).\\

{\it Uno, lo} are used
before the consonantal digram beginning with {\it s}, before the digram {\it gn}
and before {\it z, x} and consonantic groups whose second element is not
{\it l, r}. They are also used
before words beginning with a vowel and in this case they are elided.\\


The article helps in general in disambiguating other words in the context:
{\it l'}, sometimes, is not sufficient to disambiguate: {\it l'insegnante
capace parte domani} (can be both masculine and feminine).
\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}
\subsubsection{Types}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it definite}   & der (Mann) & ART:{\bf Def}.Masc.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it indefinite} & ein (Mann) & ART:{\bf Indef}.Masc.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}
& {\it masculine} & der (Mann)      & ART:Def.{\bf Masc}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it feminine}  & die (Mutter)    & ART:Def.{\bf Fem}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it neuter}    & ein (Buch)      & ART:Indef.{\bf Neut}.Nom.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
Number
& {\it singular} & der (Mann) & ART:Def.Masc.Nom.{\bf Sg} \\
\hline
& {\it plural}   & die (Dinge) & ART:Def.Neut.Nom.{\bf Pl} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Case}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}
& {\it nominative} & der (Mann) & ART:Def.Masc.{\bf Nom}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it genitive}   & des (Vaters) & ART:Def.Masc.{\bf Gen}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it dative}     & einem (Mann)  & ART:Indef.Masc.{\bf Dat}.Sg \\
\hline
& {\it accusative} & den (Mann) & ART:Indef.Masc.{\bf Akk}.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}


The attributes of Gender and Case do not apply to articles in English.  Only two
 words
belong to this category: {\em the} and {\em a}, ({\em an} being the variant
of {\it a} occurring before vowels.)  {\it The} is invariable.


\subsubsection{Type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Type} & {\em definite} & the & ATD \\
 & {\em indefinite} & a, an & ATIs \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Number} & {\em singular} & a, an & ATIs \\
 & {\em plural} & -- & -- \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Spanish}

\subsubsection{Article Type}


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}   & {\it definite } &  el      & msdefs\\
\hline
               & {\it indfefinite}& un      & msindef     \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}   & {\it m        } &   el     &       \\
\hline
               & {\it f       }  &  la      &             \\
\hline
               & {\it n       }  &  lo      &             \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}   & {\it s        } &   un     &       \\
\hline
               & {\it p       }  &  unos    &             \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
There are different positions on the ``neuter" article in the Spanish grammatical
literature. It is only identifible in singular, since in the plural the
form would coincide with the masculine plural. Normally it is used for
nominalizations:\\

{\it lo bueno es ... (the good thing is...)}

\subsubsection{Case}
Case does not apply to Spanish articles.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

%--------
\subsubsection{Definiteness}

French has definite and indefinite articles ({\it le, la les, un, une, des}).
However, there is no distinction in the IBMF tagset
because it would have no predictive power and
it can be retrieved from the graphic form.

In the tagset, articles are coded as regular determiners.

%--------
\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}     &  Example        &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Gender}        &    {\it masculine} &  le, un         &  DETR{\bf M}S \\
\hline
                    &    {\it feminine}  &  la, une        &  DETR{\bf F}S \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}    &  Example       &   Tag         \\
\hline
{\bf Number}        &    {\it singular} &  le, un        &  DETRM{\bf S} \\
\hline
                    &    {\it plural}   &  les, des      &  DETRM{\bf P} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Case} does not apply to French.

%------------------------------------------
\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         definite    le          d
             indefinite  un          i
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   le          m
             feminine    la          f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    le          s
             plural      les         p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

Case is not applicable to French.


\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Tdms-     le
Tdfs-     la
Tdmp-     les
Tdfp-     les
Tims-     un
Timp-     une
Tifs-     des
Tifp-     des
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}
\newpage


\subsection{Application to Danish}

Gender, number and definiteness are pertinent to Danish articles. The table
 below
covers the whole set of articles.  The corpus tagger for Danish will treat
 articles
as incorporated into the pronoun category.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Type}     & {\it indefinite}    & en   & art\_com\_sg\_indef  \\
\hline
               & {\it indefinite}    &  et    & art\_neut\_sg\_indef   \\
\hline
              & {\it definite}   & den   & art\_com\_sg\_def     \\
\hline
               & {\it definite}    &  det    & art\_neut\_sg\_def   \\
\hline
              & {\it definite}   &  de   & art\_pl\_def     \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


{\bf  language-specific property}\\

The enclitic article\\

Definiteness of nouns must be expressed  in certain cases by means of enclitic
articles which function as suffixes: {\it -(en)} singular common, {\it -(e)t}
 singular
neuter and {\it -(e)ne} in plural.

In corpus tagging this phenomenon will be annotated as a value of the noun
definiteness feature.\\
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Greek}

Two types of articles are distinguished in Greek: definite and
indefinite, each class including one member:\\
- definite article: o, y, to,\\
- indefinite article: enas, mia, ena.\\

In the first version of the ILSP Morphological Lexicon and
the corresponding Tagset, these two were both coded under the
grammatical category of {\it article}, further coded for the
feature Type with the values {\it  definite} and {\it
indefinite}.  At a later stage, however, this was abandoned and
currently only the definite article is characterised as {\it
article}. The indefinite article has been elevated to a category
of its own, {\it enas}, owing to its high ambiguity: besides
indefinite article, it can also be a cardinal and an indefinite
pronoun. The resolution of the ambiguity, even with the use of
the linguistic context, is extremely difficult to perform
automatically:\\

\begin{center}
{\it Mono enas anthrwpos ytan ekei.} - card.\\
{\it Ton eidha mia mera.} - ind. art.\\
{\it Perase enas apo edhw kai se zytaghe.} - ind. pron.\\
\end{center}

The following tables present the values and tags of the
attribute {\bf Type} as used in the first version, in accordance
with the EAGLES proposal.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it definite}& o   & At{\bf Df}\\
\hline
              & {\it indefinite}& enas & At{\bf Id}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

Articles are further coded for Gender, Number and Case.\\


\subsubsection{Gender, Number and Case}

Articles agree in gender, number and case
with the nouns they modify. These attributes have almost all the
values presented in the relevant sections of Nouns, with the
exception of {\it masc-fem} for Gender, {\it invariant} for
Number and {\it voc} and {\it indcl} for Case. Certain forms are
homographs, necessitating the use of a disambiguation procedure
during corpus tagging:\\


\begin{center}
{\it tou {\bf vivliou}} - neut. gen.\\
{\it tou {\bf anthrwpou}} - masc. gen.\\
but\\
{\it to {\bf exwfullo}} - neut. nom./acc.\\
\end{center}


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& o    & AtDf{\bf Ma}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}&  y    & AtDf{\bf Fe}\\
\hline
              & {\it neuter  }&  to   & AtDf{\bf Ne}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}





\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& to    & AtDfNe{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & ta    & AtDfNe{\bf Pl}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}






\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}    & {\it nom}& o & AtDfMaSg{\bf Nm}\\
\hline
              & {\it gen}& tou & AtDfMaSg{\bf Ge}\\
\hline
              & {\it acc}& ton  & AtDfMaSg{\bf Ac}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% ADVERBS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Adverb}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf ADVERB } & Type  & Degree&Polarity &wh-Type \\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX      &(14    &       &true     &        \\
              &val.s) &       &false    &        \\
\hline
              &time   &comp=  &       &       \\
              &place  &comp+  &       &       \\
              &manner &comp-- &       &       \\
GENELEX       &quant  & sup+  &       &       \\
              &degree &sup--  &       &       \\
              &compar &supabs &       &       \\
              &superl &       &       &       \\
\hline
AlethDic &     &        &     & \\
\hline
     &&posit             &         &                      \\
NERC &&compar            &         &                      \\
     &&superl            &         &                      \\
\hline
     &general  & posit   & Q-Type  & inter                \\
Leech&degree   & compar  & other   & relat                \\
     &particle*& superl  &         &                      \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{4}{|c||}{{\bf ADVERB}}\\
\hline
       & general     & pos    &   &                       \\
EAG-L1 & particle    & comp   &   &                       \\
       &             & sup    &   &                       \\
\hline
EAG-L2a&          &          &           &                          \\
\hline
        &En degr  & &En-Sp wh  &En-Sp int\\
        &Fr ne    & &En-Sp no-w&En-Sp rel\\
        &Fr pas   & &          &         \\
EAG-L2b &Du conj  & &          &         \\
        &Du pron  & &          &         \\
        &Du sep1  & &          &         \\
        &Du sep2  & &          &         \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}


\newpage

\subsection{Comments}

\subsubsection{Type}
The MULTILEX standard proposes among the ``syntactic-properties of LU's"
the attribute `Advsubclass', which corresponds to Type, with 13 values
based on distinctions of semantic type, plus the value `other' for
adverbs other than those indicated by the 13 possible values. For each value application
tests and examples are provided (MULTILEX 1993, p.69).\\
In the GENELEX model, the values for Type are proposed at the level of
syntactic specifications.\\
The TEI also proposes values on semantic grounds.\\
The feature Type was not proposed in the nucleus of minimal standard
specifications by NERC,
since most of the analysed tagsets do not make such a distinction. It appears
difficult to map existing corpus tagsets onto the
subclassifications of adverbs
proposed by the values of this feature.\\
Another interesting fact is the inclusion of Particles among the values of the
feature Type by the Leech/Wilson
proposal. The treatment of Particles appears to be somewhat
complicated: NERC suggests their inclusion in the preposition category; in
GENELEX and MULTILEX they form a separate category without any attribute.\\

In the present EAGLES proposal, the values proposed for
the feature Type at recommended level reflect a first distinction
between general adverbs and particles.
All further language-specific or application-dependent distinctions can
be made at level 2b.\\

\subsubsection{Degree}
The values of this feature are `comparative', `superlative',
`positive'.  `Positive'
can be seen as the default.  GENELEX has three more
distinctions for each of them.\\

\subsubsection{Polarity}
This is a language-dependent feature: most English tagsets
distinguish between interrogative/relative adverbs (wh-adverbs) and the
others. This distinction is also relevant for the Spanish EUROTRA Lexicon.\\

\subsubsection{Other Distinctions}
We must observe that, even though many richer classifications for Adverbs exist
and are used both in lexicons and in tagging practices,
these are based on semantic grounds and there is too much disagreement
between them. They are, therefore, left as a matter for individual systems.

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

Adverbs are very similar to the adjective in that, in general, they
behave similarly wrt the verb as the adjective does wrt the noun.
\begin{center}
{\it Una parola dolce} A/ns  vs. {\it Parlare dolcemente} B/
\end{center}

In traditional Italian grammar, adverbs are subdivided
into different subcategories on the basis of their semantic value: manner,
time, place, quantity, comparative, affirmative, negative,
relative/interrogative, etc. \\

In corpus tagging and dictionary encoding not all these types are distinguished.

\subsubsection{Degree}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}   & {\it positive } &bene      &  B    \\
\hline
               & {\it comparative}&meglio    & BC          \\
\hline
               & {\it superlative}& benissimo &  BS         \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}



\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}

% +++++ BEGIN GERMAN (add following text) +++++++++++++++++++++++++++
\subsubsection{Type}



There are three types of adverbs:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\bf ADV}: {\em general\/} (i.e. {\em  non-adjectival\/}, cf. section
ref{german:adj-use})
\item {\bf PWAV}:  {\em interogative or relative\/}
\item {\bf PROAV}: {\em pronominal\/} adverbs. These are {\em da\/} or {\em
    hier\/} + preposition (such as {\em damit, daf\"ur, dagegen, daneben
    etc\/}), which replace a PP with the specific preposition.
\end{itemize}

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= er kommt heute/ADV \\
                 \> er kommt schnell/ADJNA\\
                 \> wo/PWAV wohnt er? \\
                 \> der Ort, wo/PWA er wohnt \\
                 \> er besteht darauf/PROAV
\end{tabbing}

Semantic distinctions like {\em time, place,\/} etc. are not expressed in
the annotations.

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it general}    & oft    & {\bf ADV} \\
\hline
& {\it int/rel}    & wo     & {\bf PWAV} \\
\hline\hline
& {\it pronominal} & hierbei & {\bf PROAV} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Degree of comparison}

(This feature is not used for adverbs in the IMS-Tagset as it applies
only to a very few non-adjectival adverbs.)


\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}
& {\it positive}    & oft    & ADV:{\bf Pos} \\
\hline
& {\it comparative} & \"ofter & ADV:{\bf Comp} \\
\hline
& {\it superlative} & (am) \"oftesten & ADV:{\bf Sup} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}
In English, adverb particles are an important category because of their role
 in the forming of phrasal verbs (compare separable verb forms in German and
Dutch: 3.5.11).

\subsubsection{Adverb-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Adverb-type} & {\em general} & quickly & AV \\
 & {\em degree} & very & AVD \\
 & {\em particle} & up & AVP \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Degree }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Degree} & {\em positive} & soon & AV \\
 & {\em comparative} & sooner & AVR \\
 & {\em superlative} & soonest & AVT \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Polarity }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Polarity} & {\em wh-type} & where? & AVWQ \\
 & {\em other} & here & AV \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Wh-subtype }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Wh-subtype} & {\em relative} & when & AVWR \\
 & {\em other} & when? & AVWQ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
(Compare Pronoun and Determiner above.)
(Similar distinctions are made under Pronoun and Determiner above, 5.4.2 and
6.3.1).
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\subsubsection{Type: Language-specific features}

Dutch grammar distinguishes two subcategories of adverbs. One category is called
{\it pronominal adverb\/}, because it has the same referential function as a
pronoun. The
other is called {\it conjunctival adverb\/}, because it functions as a
conjunction. \\

{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table} !\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type          } & {\it normal     } & (hij kmot) vaak & Adv      \\
\hline
                     &{\it pronominal   }& (Ik reken) erop    &PronAdv\\
                     &                   & daar (houk ik van) &SepPronAdv\\
\hline
                &{\it conjunctival }& bovendiven (is hij ziek)&ConjAdv\\
                &             & waar (het betref)& \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

As pronominal adverbs are separable word forms, Dutch needs a way of marking
up
the following three possibilities:\\

The pronominal adverb as a whole: Tag = PronAdv\\
The first part of a separable pronominal adverb: Tag = SepPronAdv\\
The second part of a separable pronominal adverb: Tag = SepAdp
(see Adpositions).\\
\\
This can be an L2b tag.\\

\subsubsection{Degree of comparison}

CELEX does not have this distinction at adverbial level. It does have this
information
at adjectival level.\\

\newpage
%% ADVERBS:

\subsection{Application to Spanish}

\subsubsection{Type (semantic)}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type  }   & {\it general  } &          &       \\
\hline
               & {\it degree     }&          &             \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
The Spanish Eurotra dictionaries include ``semantic typing" at the
syntactic level in order to deal with several phenomena related to
the attachment of modifiers. The feature used and its values are as
follows:\\

vadv = time, manner, deg(ree), loc(ation), free, manconcret.\\

Also, in relation to overgeneration in attachment, some features
control the attachment of adverbs in order to prevent sentences as:\\

* Todo termin'{o} desgraciadamente\\
(Everything finished unfortunately)\\

Desgraciadamente aquello era verdad\\
(Unfortunately that was true)\\

\subsubsection{Degree}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Degree}   & {\it positive } &muy       &       \\
\hline
               & {\it comparative}&mejor     &             \\
\hline
               & {\it superlative}&           &           \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
In the ET-ES dictionaries there is no attribute to code the values of ``degree".\\

In Spanish, the comparative of adverbs is formed analytically with
{\it tan}, {\it m\'{a}s}, or {\it menos}:\\

{\it
m\'{a}s r\'{a}pido que yo (faster than I)\\
m\'{a}s pronto (soonner)\\
}

Only four adverbs are have irregular comparative morphology:\\

{\it
bien/mejor (well/better)\\
mal/peor (badly/worse)\\
mucho/m\'{a}s (much/more)\\
poco/menos(little/less)\\
}

\subsubsection{Polarity}

The Eurotra dictionaries have the attribute ``whmor", with the three possible
values ``int", ``rel" and ``none", which serves to distinguish between
interrogative, relative and other adverbs:\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Polarity}   & {\it          } &muy       &       \\
\hline
{\bf Wh-Type}  & {\it int        }&d\'{o}nde, cu\'{a}ndo, c\'{o}mo&
 whmore=int\\
\hline
               & {\it rel        }&donde, cuando, & whmore=rel\\
\hline
{\bf non-Wh}   & {\it            }&aqu\'{i}, ahora, as\'{i}& whmore=none\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Apocope}

Some adverbs (just as we saw wrt adjectives) change their form
when they occurr before an adjective or another adverb:\\

{\it
tanto/tan (ricamente)\\
cuanto/cuan (largo)\\
mucho/muy (despacio) \\
}

\newpage

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

As in other languages, French has a tradition of distinguishing
classes of adverbs (place, manner, etc.) on the basis of semantic considerations.
Degree is one of these classes. However, the IBMF tagset has a unique
tag for adverbs, {\bf ADVE} (with the exception of negative
particles, see below).

%--------
\subsubsection{EAGLES features not applicable}

{\bf Polarity} and {\bf wh-type} do not apply to French.

%--------
\subsubsection{IBMF Tagset features not applicable in EAGLES}

The tagset has two tags for specific negation adverbs:
{\bf NE} and {\bf PAS} (the latter class containing {\it pas} and {\it plus}).

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         general     fortement   g
             particle    ne, pas     p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

It seems necessary in  French  to  distinguish the  two  parts  of the
negation  (``ne  ...  pas"),  because  they  play  an important role in
disambiguation.

\subsubsection{Degree}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Degree       positive    fortement   p
             comparative davantage   c
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

We encode Degree for compatibility  with other languages,  but,  as with
adjectives,  the comparative feature is not very productive in French.
It applies only to beaucoup  (comp.= ``davantage"),  bien (comp.=
``mieux"),
``mal"  (comp.= ``pis") and ``peu" (comp.  = ``moins").  The comparative
for other
adverbs  is  marked by ``plus" +  adverb  (e.g. ``plus fortement").  The
superlative  is  usually marked by ``le"+ comparative  (e.g.  ``le plus
fortement").

\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Rgp       beaucoup
Rgc       davantage
Rpn       ne
Rpn       pas, plus
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}



\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}
Not used in the Portuguese morphological application.

\subsubsection{Degree}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value           Example     Code
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
Degree       positive
             comparative
             superlative
============ =============== =========== ====
l-specif     comparative+    mais
             comparative-    menos
             comparative=    ta~o
------------ --------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

In the Portuguese model the `positive' value is not explicitly marked because
it is considered a default value.


\newpage

\subsection{Application to Danish}

In  traditional Danish grammars the word class of adverbs is divided into
subclasses according to their semantic content and possible position within a
sentence (field grammar).  Dictionaries do not  deal with semantic subclasses.

The EDEMD distinguishes between real adverbs and derived adverbs.
Furthermore,  distinctions are made on the basis of the syntactic properties of
 adverbs
(modifying role, scope and position in sentence).  Generally, in corpus tagging
 and
dictionary encoding the above mentioned distinctions are not used.

For real adverbs (i.e. not derived from adjectives) there are only a few relics
 of a
system of degree comparison. Most grammars regard adverbs as uninflectable.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Degree}     & {\it positive}    &  ofte  & adv\_pos  \\
\hline
               & {\it comparative}    &  oftere    & adv\_comp   \\
\hline
              & {\it superlative}    & oftest   & adv\_sup     \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


%------------------------------------------
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% ADPOSITIONS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage




\subsection{Application to Greek}

INSERT SECTION ON GREEK ADVERBS HERE.

\newpage


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%------------------------------------------
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% ADPOSITIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage
\section{Adposition}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf ADPOSITION} & Type &Formation \\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX      &preposition  &  \\
              &postposition &  \\
              &circumposition& \\
\hline
GENELEX       &Preposition* & \\
\hline
AlethDic &  Preposition*   &  \\
\hline
NERC & Preposition*   &       \\
\hline
Leech&preposition & \\
     &postposition&  \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{2}{|c||}{{\bf ADPOSITION}}\\
\hline
EAG-L1 & preposition &simple \\
       & postposition &fused   \\
       & circumposition & \\
\hline
EAG-L2a &       &        \\
\hline
EAG-L2b&Du 2nd-p & \\
       &Du sepadv& \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}

\newpage
\subsection{Comments}
\subsubsection{Type}
The values of this feature allow one to distinguish between
`preposition' and `postposition'. MULTILEX also has a value for circumposition
(see MULTILEX).
In NERC, GENELEX and AlethDic, Prepositions constitute a separate category
without any attribute at the morphosyntactic level; in GENELEX the
distinction based on a semantic classification between `temporal', `manner'
and `place' is foreseen at the syntactic level.\\

In NERC, Prepositions also include Particles. In English there is a problem
of distinguishing the verb particles from prepositions, but many
tagsets provide a separate label for particles.

\subsubsection{Formation}

In some languages, e.g. in Italian (see below), prepositions
may appear fused
with articles in a unique graphical form. EAGLES encourages the treatment of
these forms as separable, therefore having two tags corresponding to the two
different categories, but also allows the use of a unique tag.\\

This general
recommendation, i.e. to separate different categories and to encode them
with different tags,
is also applicable to
other cases of contractions, such as negation, cliticisation, etc.\\

In general, there will be language-specific options for the treatment of
these phenomena.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} &example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type     } & {\it preposition} &di, a, da& E\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}
In Italian, simple prepositons are distinguished in two categories:\\

(i) a closed set, {\it di, a, da, in, con, su, per, fra, tra} which are used
to express a number of syntactic relations.\\
(ii) a larger set with more specific meanings, e.g. {\it sopra, sotto, prima,
dopo,
senza,} etc.. These constitute a crux in tagging because they are involved in
transcategorization phenomena (see Conjunctions).\\
The tag is E.\\

Most of the prepositions in category (ii)
require the presence of another preposition before the
argument, {\it sopra di noi}: this raises the problem of which strategy to
choose in multiword expression tagging (see Leech and Wilson
Invitation Draft).


\subsubsection{Formation}

Prepositions in category (i) are often fused
with following articles,
forming the so-called {\it preposizioni articolate}: ex. {\it
agli (a+gli), ai (a+i), degli (di+gli), dello (di+lo)}. These compounds,
which can be found instantiated only in a corpus,
are tagged with the tag (E) plus the
morphological features of the fused article.\\

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} &example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Formation} & {\it simple} &di, a, da& E     \\
\hline
                & {\it fused} &dagli, agli& E/mp     \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}

Three types of adpositions are distinguished: {\em preposition,
postposition\/} and {\em circumposition\/}.

There are a few cases where prepositions and a following definite
article are contracted:

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= zum = zu + dem \\
                 \> ans = zu + das
\end{tabbing}

% ***** BEGIN GERMAN (modify following text) ************************
\subsubsection{Type}

\vspace{2ex}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it preposition} & ohne (mich)  & AP{\bf PR}:Akk \\
\hline
& {\it postposition} & (ihm) zuliebe & AP{\bf PO}:Dat \\
\hline
& {\it circumposition} & von (dem Tag) an & AP{\bf ZR}\footnotemark \\
\hline\hline
\end{tabular}

\footnotetext{Only the second part of the circumposition is actually
annotated with APZR: {\em von/APPR:Dat dem Tag an/APZR\/}.}


\subsubsection{Formation}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Formation}
& {\it simple}& in (das Haus) & APPR:Akk \\
&             & zu (den Leuten) & APPR:Akk \\
& {\it fused}& ins (Haus) & APPR{\bf ART}:Neut.Akk.Sg \\
&                  & zur (Schule) & APPR{\bf ART}:Fem.Dat.Sg \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Adposition-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Adposition-type} & {\em preposition} & at & APR \\
 & {\em postposition} & 's & APO \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
On the classification of the genitive particle {\em 's} as a postposition, see
Nouns above.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\subsubsection{Type}

CELEX has no Adpositions of type preposition. It only has straightforward
Prepositions as a part of speech. However the German table with attribute values:
\underline{preposition}, \underline{postposition} and \underline{circumposition}
is applicable to Dutch as well. But, as
mentioned above, we need a special language-specific
attribute
value to mark up the non-verbal parts of separable verb forms and another to
mark up
the second part of separable pronominal adverbs:
{\it The table below is a proposal for Dutch, not a CELEX table} !\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type          } & {\it preposition} & zonder (mij)    & PreP     \\
\hline
                     &{\it postposition }& (de berg) op       &PostP  \\
\hline
                     &{\it circumposition}&van (die dag) af   &CircumP\\
\hline
                &{\it 2nd part of pron.adv.}&(daar houd ik) van&SepAdp \\
\hline
                &{\it non-verb. part of sep.adv.}&(gaven) aan&SepVAdp\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
\newpage
%% ADPOSITIONS

\subsection{Application to Spanish}

\subsubsection{Prepositions}

In our dictionaries there are no special attributes for prepositions at
the morphological level. At the configurational level, a semantic
typing of prepositions helps to control attachment of modifiers.\\

ptype: norm, loc, orig, dest, nil \\

In Spanish some contractions of articles and prepositions can be
found:\\

{\it
a + el = al\\
de + el = del\\
}

For analysis purposes, these contractions are treated at the
morphological level in ET-ES grammars as samples of a special category
``portmanteau", and are decomposed before reaching the configurational level
ECS.\\

\newpage
\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value}          &  Example        &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Type}      & {\it preposition}    & dans            &  PREP        \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value}          &  Example        &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Formation}  & {\it simple     }    & dans            &  PREP        \\
\hline
                & {\it fused       } & au              &  PAU         \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
The IBMF tagset has 2 classes of preposition:

\begin{itemize}
\item [PDEA] for {\it \`a} and {\it de}
\item [PREP] for other prepositions
\end{itemize}

and 4 classes of preposition-determiner:

\begin{itemize}
\item [PAU] for {\it au} ({\it \`a + le})
\item [PAUX] for {\it aux} ({\it \`a + les})
\item [PDES] for {\it des} ({\it de + les})
\item [PREPMS] for {\it du} ({\it de + le})
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}


\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         preposition en, de      p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Sp        en
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}


%% ADPOSITIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ---------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value            Example     Code
------------ ---------------- ----------- ----
Type         preposition      em
             postposition
             circumposition
------------ ---------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Formation}

This feature is not used in the Portuguese lexicon, but it is
pertinent to the Portuguese language, where contraction phenomena occur.
Following the GENELEX multilingual model, in the Portuguese lexicon
contraction phenomena occuring typically with preposition plus determiner
are dealt with as a special kind of morphological unity (the {\it unit\'e
morphologique agglutine\'e}.
\newpage


\subsection{Application to Danish}

In automatic corpus tagging the recognition and annotation of circumpositions is
 a
special task to be dealt with.

At present there does not exist a commonly agreed tagset for the three
 types
of  adpositions: simple preposition e.g. {\it til}, complex preposition e.g.
 {\it uden
for} and circumposition e.g. {\it for ... skyld}. Furthermore, as in English,
 the
genitive {\it 's} may be considered as an enclitic postposition. The table below
 may
be regarded as a proposal for Danish.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Type}     & {\it preposition, simple}    &  til  & p\_s  \\
\hline
     & {\it preposition, complex}    & uden for  & p\_c  \\
 \hline
     & {\it circumposition}    &  for (denne sags) skyld  & p\_cc  \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline
\newpage
%% ADPOSITIONS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%





\subsection{Application to Greek}



\subsubsection{Type}



\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} &Gr. example & Gr.tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type     } & {\it preposition} & me, kata & Pp\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{15mm}


As indicated by the above table, prepositions in Greek
form a category of their own.\\

In Greek we distinguish between two kinds of prepositions:\\

(a) simple ones, included in this category, and\\

(b) complex ones, formed by the combination of an adverb and a
preposition: e.g. {\it panw apo, mazi me, etc.}. These can only
be recognised at text level by the use of a tagger that looks
above the word level.\\

The category of simple prepositions constitutes a closed set,
while the latter is productive.\\






\subsubsection{Formation}



One of the simple prepositions, namely {\it se}, when followed
by the definite article, is fused with it and forms what we
call {\it prepart}: ston (se + ton), styn (se + tyn), sto (se +
to), stous (se + tous), stis (se + tis), sta (se + ta). These
forms are further coded for the morphological features of the
article (i.e. Gender, Number and Case).\\

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} &example & Gr.tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Formation} & {\it simple} & se & Pp{\bf Sp}  \\
\hline
                & {\it prepart} & ston & Pp{\bf Pa} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}






%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%  CONJUNCTIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Conjunction}
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf CONJUNCTION} & Type & Coord-T& Subord-T    &Iter & Sent.Intr\\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX&Coord*   &simple    &                   &yes     &yes       \\
        &Subord*  &repetit   &                   &no      &no        \\
        &         &correlat  &                   &        &          \\
\hline
GENELEX &coord    &        &       & & \\
        &subord   &        &       & & \\
\hline
AlethDic&coord    &        &       & & \\
        &subord   &        &       & & \\
\hline
NERC    &coord    &        &       & & \\
        &subord   &        &       & & \\
\hline
Leech   &coord    &simple    &                   &        &          \\
        &subord   &repetit   &                   &        &          \\
        &         &correlat  &                   &        &          \\
        &         &sent.init &                   &        &          \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{5}{|c||}{{\bf CONJUNCTION}}\\
\hline
EAG-L1  &coord    &        &       & & \\
        &subord   &        &       & & \\
\hline
EAG-L2a  &         &         & +infve     &        &          \\
        &         &          & compar     &        &          \\
        &         &          & +fin       &        &          \\
\hline
EAG-L2b  &      &En simple    &      &        &\\
        &       &En init     &       &        &  \\
        &       &En no-init  &       &        &    \\
        &       &Sp correl   &       &        &    \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}
\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

Conjunctions link syntactically  two or more words or two or more syntagms:
phrases, sentences, etc.\\

Coordinating: determines a syntactic equivalence between conjuncts:
\begin{center}
{\it Mary and John}
\end{center}
Subordinating: links two sentences in a dependency relation:
\begin{center}
{\it I do not answer, since I was ...}
\end{center}

A large core of agreement emerges as regards Conjunctions. All the analysed
systems agree as to the distinction between coordinating and subordinating
Conjunctions. The only difference is the MULTILEX position which splits the
two types of Conjunctions into two different categories, `coordinators' and
`subordinators': however, no mapping problems arise. The same choice was
made by the TEI.\\

\subsubsection{Coordination Type}
Within the class of coordinators MULTILEX foresees some features
pertaining to the syntactic level, which in the Leech/Wilson
proposal are collected
under a unique feature Coord-Type:\\
-- `simple': between conjuncts, ({\it John and Mery}),\\
-- `repetitive': before each conjunct, ({\it both John and Mary}),\\
-- `correlative': before a conjoined phrase, it requires specific
coordinators between conjuncts,
({\it either John or Mary}).\\
`Repetitive' and `correlative'
imply the
specification of {\bf Expected Coordinator}, i.e. {\it both} requires {\it and}
etc., and the specification of {\bf Iteration}, i.e.
whether a coordinator can coordinate more than two
conjuncts, {\it and ... and ... and} (more than
two: yes), {\it but} (two: no). These last two attributes are introduced
by MULTILEX only.

{\bf Sentence Introducer} is used for coordinators which can
introduce a sentence, linking it by coordination to the preceding
sentence:
{\it And Mary left}. ({\it Either} cannot introduce a sentence in this
way).\\

In the EAGLES Proposal these further distinctions concerning the Type
of Coordination are treated as language-specific features.

\subsubsection{Subordination Type}

Further information on the Type of Subordination, i.e. if the conjunction
requires a finite verb ``+fin", a non-finite verb ``+infve" or introduces
a comparison ``compar" are proposed on the Level-2b, since they are shared by
three different languages.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

Conjunctions in Italian constitute an ``open class": the same elements can
often have the function of conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs.\\

Conjunction: {\it Ti sentirai tranquillo, dopo aver sostenuto l'esame}\\
Preposition: {\it Ti sentirai tranquillo dopo l'esame}\\
Adverb: {\it Sostenuto l'esame, dopo ti sentirai tranquillo}\\

For these classes, as far as possible, application tests have to be
employed:\\
- preposition: the argument is an NP;\\
- conjunction: the sentence introduced by the elements is in a dependency
relation with the governing predicate;\\
- adverb: it semantically modifies the whole sentence and the predicate in
particular.\\

In grammars, no agreement is reached as to the inclusion of some elements
in the conjunction or the adverb class (e.g.
{\it anche, pure, dunque, pertanto}).\\

In some recent linguistic theories, all these elements go into the wider
class of ``connettivi" (connectives), which link various parts of a text
(Berretta 1984).

In tagging Italian the problem of subordinating ``locutions"
(multi-words) has to be dealt with, e.g. {\it dal momento che}.\\

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Type} & {\it value} &example & It.tag\\
\hline \hline
           & subordinating  & perche'     & C     \\
\hline
           & coordinating&      e          & CC    \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The dictionary proposes the distinction between the coordinating and
subordinating function:
\begin{center}
{\it Maria e Giovanni} CC\\
{\it non ho risposto perche' ero disattento} C
\end{center}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}
% ***** BEGIN GERMAN (modify following text) ************************
\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it coordinating}   & (ich) und (du) & KO{\bf N} \\
\hline
& {\it subordinating}  & (er will,) da{\ss} & KO{\bf U}S \\
\hline
& {\it comparison}     & (kleiner) als    & KO{\bf KOM} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{2ex}

\subsubsection{Subord-Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Subord-Type}
& {\it finite}  & (er kommt,) wenn & KO{\bf US} \\
\hline
& {\it with infinitive}  & ohne (zu wollen) & KO{\bf UI} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Conjunction-type  }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Conjunction-type} & {\em coordinating} & and, or & CC \\
 & {\em subordinating} & if & CSF \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Coord.-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Coord.-type} & {\em simple} & and, or & CC \\
 & {\em initial} & both (...and) & CCI \\
 & {\em non-initial} & (neither...) nor & CCM \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Subord.-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Subord-type} & {\em with finite verb} & because & CSF \\
 & {\em with non-finite verb} & in order (to) & CSN \\
 & {\em comparative} & than & CSC \\
\hline
\end{tabular}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

The German scheme is applicable to Dutch as well, but there is no such
application in
CELEX.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type          } & {\it coordinat  } & (ik) en (jij)   & CoorConj \\
\hline
                     &{\it postposition }& (hij wil) dat   &SubConj   \\
\hline
                     &{\it subord + inf.ve}&zonder (te willen)&InfConj\\
\hline
                &{\it comparison           }&(kleiner) dan &CompConj   \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
\newpage
%% CONJUNCTIONS

\subsection{Application to Spanish}

In Eurotra coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are treated as
two different categories. While at the morphological level they have no
special attributes, at the constituent level we have three attributes
for the subordinating type:\\

-- sconjtype (valued as circ, compar, compl), which serves to
distinguish between:\\

circumstantial, e.g.: {\it MIENTRAS yo trabajo, el juega
(while I work, he plays)}\\
comparative, e.g.: {\it Juan es tan lento COMO su hermano
(John is as slow as his brother)}\\
complementizers, e.g.: {\it Juan dice QUE es verdad
(John says that it is true)}\\

-- ftranc, to lexically encode the value of the conjunction to make up a
transconstructional modifier. \footnote{Definition of
Transconstructionals:
The Eurotra Reference Manual 7 defines transconstructionals as those
constituents  which  do not modify the governor of the construction to
which they belong, but provide information about  the  sentence  as  a
whole.}

-- comp (valued as q, nonq).
Complementizers are thus distinguished with respect to their interrogative
value: ``que/si" (that/whether)\\

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}   & {\it coord} &  Juan Y Maria & cconj   \\
\hline
             & {\it subord  }  &  no se SI vendr\'{e} & sconj   \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip
cconj: {\it y, pero, ni, o}\\

sconj: {\it cuando, si,que, porque, aunque, mientras, etc}.\\

\subsubsection{Coord-Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Coord-T}   & {\it simple} &   &   \\
\hline
               & {\it correlat  }  &  NI Juan NI Mar\'{i}a & \\
\hline
               & {\it initial   }  &                &    \\
\hline
               & {\it non-initial} &                &    \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip

Coord-T distinctions are not coded in the ET-ES dictionaries. There are
no examples for ``non-initial" coordinating conjunctions.



\subsubsection{Subord-Type}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
   {\bf Subord-T}   & {\it +infve} &para &   \\
\hline
                  & {\it +fin  }  &  mientras & \\
\hline
               & {\it comparison}  & tan &               \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\bigskip

In the ET dictionaries, there exists the feature ``sform" with values
infin, finite, pastpart and gerund, which is also used to characterise
subordinating conjunctions.

For those subordinating conjunctions which lexically require finite
verbal forms, Spanish also requires information on the mood of the
subordinate verb. To that end, the ET-ES lexica encode a feature
"exig-mood", valued ``indicative/subjunctive", mainly for synthesis
purposes.



\newpage

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
  \hline
{\bf Attribute}     &    {\it value}   &  Example        &   Tag        \\
\hline
{\bf Type}          &    {\it coord  } &  et             &  CCOO        \\
\hline
                    &    {\it subord } &  que            &  CSUB        \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{5mm}
All EAGLES attributes apply in principle to French. Only the
coordination/subordination distinction is coded in the tagset.

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         coordinat.  et          c
             subordinat. que         s
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Cc        mais, ou
Cs        que
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}


%%  CONJUNCTIONS
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{verbatim}
------------ ------------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value         Example     Tag
------------ ------------- ----------- ----
Type         coordination  e
             subordination que
------------ ------------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}
\newpage

\subsection{Application to Danish}

In general, the EAGLES attributes apply also to Danish, thus the scheme for English
is applicable to Danish as well. Traditional dictionaries do not distinguish
 between
conjunction types, but grammars do. The EDEMD uses the following additional
features, as compared with EAGLES, within the description of coordinating conjunctions:
conjunction (simple coordination) e.g.{\it og}, disjunction e.g.{\it eller}
and adversative conjunction e.g.{\it men}. Furthermore, a negation inherent
 to the conjunction is also catered for in the encoding guidelines.

At present,  there is no common definition of appropriate tags for corpus
annotation purposes. \\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Conj.Type}     & {\it coordinating}    &  og  & coconj  \\
\hline
             & {\it subordinating}    & fordi   & subconj  \\
 \hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Coord.Type}     & {\it  simple}    &  og  &  coconj  \\
\hline
            & {\it initial}    &  hverken (... eller)  &  coconj\_init  \\
 \hline
             & {\it non-initial}    &  (hverken ...) eller   & coconj\_n-init
 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf  Subord. Type}     & {\it with finite verb }    &  fordi  & subconj\_vfin
 \\
\hline
          & {\it with infinitive}    & for at  & subconj\_inf  \\
 \hline
         & {\it  comparative}    &  end  & subconj\_comp  \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

%%  CONJUNCTIONS

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%




\newpage





\subsection{Application to Greek}

As with prepositions, we can distinguish between two kinds of
conjunctions in Greek:\\

(a) a finite set of simple conjunctions: e.g. {\it kai, alla,
myn, oute}, and\\ (b) a productive set of conjunctions formed
periphrastically by some word/phrase combined with a
conjunction: e.g. {\it dhedhomenou oti, an kai}, etc. The
tagging of these multi-word forms must be performed by a special
mechanism.\\

\subsubsection{Type}

\begin{tabular}{||l|l||l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Type} & {\it value} &Gr.example & Gr.tag\\
\hline \hline
           & coord  & kai     & CjCo  \\
\hline
           & subord & oti     & CjSb  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}


Conjunctions in Greek can be further subcategorised depending on
their semantic value: causal, temporal, enumerating, etc.
However, this distinction was not considered necessary for the
present codification.\\



\subsubsection{Coordination Type}

This feature is not presently coded in the Greek Lexicon, but
applies to the language.\\

We distinguish two cases:\\

- conjunctions that are always found alone in the text: e.g.
{\it alla},\\
- conjunctions that can be found alone or combined with another
conjunction before the first conjunct: e.g. {\it kai, y}.\\

\begin{center}
{\it O Ghiannys {\bf kai} y Maria efughan.}\\
or\\
{\it {\bf Kai} o Ghiannys {\bf kai} y Maria efughan.}\\
\end{center}

In this case, the values {\it simple} and {\it correl} proposed
at level L2b could be used for Greek.\\

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%------------------------------------------

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%  NUMERAL
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Numeral}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf NUMERAL } & Type  & Gender& Number  & Case   & Function\\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX      &Cardin*&      &         &        &        \\
\hline
GENELEX       &cardin* &     &        &       &Det    \\
              &ordin*  &      &        &       &       \\
\hline
AlethDic      &cardin* &     &        &       &Adj    \\
              &ordin*  &      &        &       &       \\
\hline
NERC & cardin  &         &         &                      &   \\
     & ordin   &         &         &                      &   \\
\hline
     & cardin  & m       & s       & nom                  &  \\
Leech& ordin   & f       & p       & gen                  &   \\
     & denominat& n         &         & dat                  &  \\
     & frequency& c         &         & acc                  &   \\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{5}{|c||}{{\bf NUMERAL}}\\
\hline
EAG-L1 & cardin      &  m     & s & nom                   &     \\
       & ordin       &  f     & p & gen                   &      \\
       &             &  n     &   & dat                   &       \\
       &             &        &   & acc                   &          \\
\hline
EAG-L2a &          &         &     &                       &          \\
\hline
EAG-L2b &Du quantif& It c    &  It n        &  &    Pron      \\
        &   denomin&         &              &  &    Det       \\
        &          &         &              &  &    Adj       \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}

\newpage
\subsection{Comments}

The analysed systems show a diverging treatment of the Numeral category.
Not all languages and systems may want to handle them as a separate
category. EAGLES leaves open the option of handling them in the
respective relevant classes of Pronouns, Determiners and Adjectives.

\subsubsection{Type}
In MULTILEX cardinals form a separate category without any attribute.\\

GENELEX and AlethDic propose a distinction between cardinals and ordinals
within the Adjective category; furthermore, GENELEX has a cardinal value
in the `Determinant' category.\\

\subsubsection{Function}

In EAGLES, Numerals are proposed as a separate
category and the attribute {\bf
Function} is also introduced
in order to deal with systems which presuppose a further distinction
between Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives (Italian), and Determinant
and Adjectives (French, GENELEX).


\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}

In Romance language practices (French, Italian,
etc.) Numerals constitute
a subclass of Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives.\\

They are subdivided into cardinal
and ordinal:

- cardinal indicates absolute numeral quantity: {\it zero, cento,
mille};

- ordinal indicates order and classification: {\it primo, secondo}


\subsubsection{Type}


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it cardinal}& zero       & N      \\
\hline
              & {\it ordinal}&  secondo &  PN/ms  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Gender}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& primo (anno)  & DN/{\bf m}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}& (la) seconda  & PN/{\bf f}\\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The value {\it common} does not apply to Italian ordinals,
as they behave as adjectives with {\it due uscite} (two
endings).

\subsubsection{Number}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& prima         & PN/f{\bf s}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & prime          & PN/f{\bf p}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\subsubsection{Function}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Function}  & {\it pronoun}& (la) prima         & PN/fs\\
\hline
              & {\it determiner}  & primo amore    & DN/ms\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}
The following are examples of both the pronominal and determiner functions in Italian:
\begin{center}
{\it non voglio la prima fetta} DN/fs, {\it dammi la seconda} PN/fs
\end{center}
\newpage
\subsection{Application to German}

% ***** BEGIN GERMAN (modify following text) ************************
In the IMS-Tagset only cardinals are distinguished from other POS-Types.
Ordinals are classified as adjectives.

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= der dritte/ADJA Mann \\
                 \> drei/CARD M\"anner \\
                 \> im Jahre 2000/CARD
\end{tabbing}

\subsubsection{Numerals: Type}

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& example& tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\it cardinal}    & 27    & CARD \\
\hline
& {\it ordinal} & -- & -- \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\newpage
\subsection{Application to English}


Gender and Case do not apply to English numerals.

\subsubsection{Numeral-type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf  Numeral-type} & {\em cardinal} & two, 55 & NUC \\
 & {\em ordinal} & second, 55th & NUO \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Number} & {\em singular} & one & NUCs\\
 & {\em plural} & fifty   & NUCp \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{10mm}

Note that when a numeral word occurs with a plural inflection ({\it firsts,
fifties}), this is considered a clear indicator of the word's status as a noun,
rather than as a numeral in the normal sense.  All numerals can be converted
into nouns for special functions.

\newpage
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%


CELEX has a \underline{morphological} word class tag Q, used in derivational
word analysis,
which covers Numerals and Quantifiers. Apart of that, CELEX has a
\underline{syntactical} word
class tag NUM (Numerals) divided in two subclasses: cardinals and ordinals.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type          } & {\it Quantifier } & veel            &NUM quant \\
\hline
                     &{\it Cardinal     }& zeventien       &NUM hoofd \\
\hline
                     &{\it Ordinal        }&zeventiende    &NUM rang\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\vspace{10mm}

This is not a CELEX tag. We decided to include it in the table, though, because
Dutch
traditional grammarians and lexicographers distinguish a subclass, called
`onbepaalde (hoofd)telwoorden' in Dutch. Some call them `indefinite numerals', others
`indefinite
cardinals'. This class concerns words like English `many', `more' , `most' and the
 like.\\

\newpage

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

The IBMF tagset has only one tag for numerals, {\bf CHIF}.
However, most of the attributes distinguished in EAGLES apply to French,
except {\bf case}, as usual.

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Type         cardinal    deux        c
             ordinal     deuxieme    o
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Gender}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Gender       masculine   premier     m
             feminine    premiere    f
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Number}
\begin{verbatim}
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Attribute    Value       Example     Code
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
Number       singular    premier     s
             plural      premiers    p
------------ ----------- ----------- ----
\end{verbatim}

\subsubsection{Case}

Not applicable to French.



\subsubsection{Combinations}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
Mcms-     un
Mcfs-     une
Mc-s-     zero
Mc-p-     deux, trois
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}

Note:\\

Traditionnal grammars usually distinguish un/article and un/numeral.
However, it is very difficult to find linguistic tests that enable the
two to be
discriminated.
It is not certain that this distinction will be kept.\\
Cfr.\\
J'ai vu un chat (article)\\
J'ai vu un chat et deux chiens (numeral)\\



%%  NUMERAL
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

Numerals were included as types of adjectives in the Portuguese
demo lexicon.


\newpage

\subsection{Application to Danish}

In traditional dictionaries the word class Numeral covers cardinals and ordinals
without  any subclassification. Some traditional grammars focus on the
 adjective-like properties of numerals and treat them as subclasses of the adjective. The
EDEMD  classifies quantifier, cardinal and ordinal as separate categories.
However, the EAGLES attributes are applicable to Danish as well.\\

\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}     &  Example & Tag  \\
\hline \hline
{\bf   Type}     & {\it cardinal }    &  fem  & card  \\
\hline
                          & {\it ordinal}    & femte  & ord  \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\newline
\newline

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%  NUMERAL

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage
\subsection{Application to Greek}

Numerals in Greek include both numerals presented in digits
(Arabic numbers, Greek or Latin letters) and full words. To code
this, a specific feature is used (not included in the EAGLES
proposal), namely {\bf form} (see relevant section).\\




\subsubsection{Type}

Both cardinal and ordinal numerals are recognised in Greek.\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}    & {\it cardinal}& mydhen, 0    & Nm{\bf Cd} \\
\hline
              & {\it ordinal}& tritos, 3os &  Nm{\bf Od}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\subsubsection{Gender, Number and Case}

Given that numerals in Greek act as nouns and/or adjectives,
they are further coded for Gender, Number and Case. When they
function as adjectives, they must agree in these three features
with the noun they refer to.\\

Not all values of these three features are applicable to
numerals, as shown in the following tables. In fact, the values
{\it masc-fem} for Gender and {\it invariant} for Number are not
used at all.\\


\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Gender}  & {\it masculine}& prwtos  & NmOd{\bf Ma}\\
\hline
              & {\it feminine}& prwty  & NmOd{\bf Fe}\\
\hline
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Number}  & {\it singular}& prwtos         & NmOdMa{\bf Sg}\\
\hline
              & {\it plural}  & prwtoi          & NmOdMa{\bf Pl}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}


\vspace{10mm}



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Case}    & {\it nom}& prwtos & NmOdMaSg{\bf Nm}\\
\hline
              & {\it gen}& prwtou & NmOdMaSg{\bf Ge}\\
\hline
              & {\it acc}& prwto  & NmOdMaSg{\bf Ac}\\
\hline \hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it voc}& prwte & NmOdMaSg{\bf Vo}\\
\hline
  {\it l-spec}       & {\it indcl}& dhuo & NoCdMaPl{\bf Ic}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}


\subsubsection{Function}

This attribute is used in Greek in order to distinguish between
numerals functioning as nouns and numerals that function as
adjectives. Adjectival numerals may appear on their own, i.e.
the noun they refer to may be ommitted:\\

\begin{center}

{\it Dhwse mou dhwdheka vivlia.}\\
{\it Dhwse mou dhwdheka.}\\

\end{center}




\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & It. example& It. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Function}  & {\it adj}& dhwdeka    & NmCdMaPlIc{\bf Aj}\\
\hline
 l-spec  & {\it nom}& dhwdekadha      & NmCdFeSgNm{\bf No}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\vspace{10mm}



\subsubsection{Form}

This feature is used to code the form of the numeral (i.e. type
of digits or full word-form). All the values are
language-specific.\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}&{\it value}   & Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Form}  & {\it word}& dhwdeka    & NmCdMaPlIcAj{\bf Wd}\\
\hline
{\it l-spec}  & {\it number}& 12      & NmCdMaPlIcAj{\bf Nu}\\
\hline
{\it l-spec}  & {\it gr-num}& ib      & NmCdMaPlIcAj{\bf Gn}\\
\hline
{\it l-spec}  & {\it lat-num}& XII      & NmCdMaPlIcAj{\bf Ln}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}






%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%------------------------------------------
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%  INTERJECTION
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Interjections}
No subcategories are foreseen.
\subsection{Application to Italian}

In the Italian corpus and lexicon, Interjections
are tagged {\bf I}. There are no subcategories.
% +++++ BEGIN GERMAN (add following text) +++++++++++++++++++++++++++
\subsection{Application to German}

The IMS-Tagset provides the tag {\bf ITJ} for interjections.
There are no subcategories.
\subsection{Application to English}
There are no subcategories of interjections. To avoid confusion over the
use of ``I", this word-class is tagged ``Ij".
\subsection{Application to Dutch}
CELEX has no distinctive tags for interjections. \\

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

Although they are a valid class in French, interjections are not coded as
such in the IBMF tagset.

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
I         eh
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%  INTERJECTION
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\subsection{Application to Portuguese}

This category is not included in the Portuguese demo lexicon.


\subsection{Application to Danish}

There are no subcategories in Danish.  The EDEMD has no description of
interjections.


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%  INTERJECTION

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\subsection{Application to Greek}



In the Greek Morphological Lexicon as well as the Corpus,
interjections are coded with the tag ``Ij". No subcategories or
other features are used for this category. \\

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%



%------------------------------------------
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% UNIQUE MEMBER
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\newpage
\section{Unique membership class}
\subsection{Comments}
This category should contain language-specific phenomena.\\

EAGLES recommends keeping this class as small as possible.\\
All the members of this class are to be seen at the level 2b of
language-specific distinctions, e.g. `infinitive marker'
for English, German, Dutch, Danish), `existential' for English, etc.\\

AlethDic has a special class ``Mot not autonome", in which e.g. {\it
hui} is included.\\

% +++++ BEGIN GERMAN (add following text) +++++++++++++++++++++++++++
\subsection{Application to German}

Categories with unique members are particles like negation ({\em nicht\/}),
infinitive marker ({\em zu\/}), superlative marker ({\em am\/}).

The IMS-tagset includes another particle type for separable prefixes.
It covers prefixes like {\em an, aus, ein, ...\/} (mostly identical to
prepositions), but also other (non-adverbial) prefixes like {\em rad,
  statt, instand\/}.

\begin{tabbing}
{\em Example:\ } \= er kommt an/PTKVZ \\
                 \> er kauft ein/PTKVZ \\
                 \> er f\"ahrt rad/PTKVZ  {\em (not: Rad !)\/} \\
                 \> es findet statt/PTKVZ \\
                 \> er h\"alt das Haus instand/PTKVZ \\
\end{tabbing}


%%%%%%% BEGIN GERMAN (comment) %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% I'm not sure wether verb prefixes should be inluded here (or rather with
% adverbs!) as they do not represent a class with "unique" members
%
\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Particle-Type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Particle-Type}& {\em infinitive} & to (+ Infin.) & UI \\
 & {\em negative} & not, n't & UN \\
 & {\em existential} & there (is/are) & UX \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\subsection{Application to Dutch}


We have recently sent to the EAGLES group of Professor G.\ Leech
the proposal of
attributing a value for Dutch in this group: {\it infinitive-marker\/} to mark
up the
prepositions `om' and `te' and `om te'. \\

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus and Lexicon)}

We see no language specifics that would be coded in the IBMF tagset
and would not fit in other EAGLES classes.


%% UNIQUE MEMBER

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%






\subsection{Application to Greek}

This class could be used for the codification of particles,
which form a distinct category in Greek. The only feature
pertinent to this category is that of {\bf Type}.\\


\subsubsection{Particle-Type}

Particles can be used to form compound forms of tense (e.g.
future) or mood (e.g. subjunctive), or as introducers of
negation.\\

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\it value} & Gr. Example & Gr. Tag \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}& {\it fut} & tha & Pt{\bf Fu} \\
\hline
 & {\it neg} & dhen & Pt{\bf Ng} \\
\hline
 & {\it subj} & na & Pt{\bf Su} \\
\hline
 & {\it other} & as & Pt{\bf Ot} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

The value {\it other} is used to group together various
functions of particles, such as ascertaining or hesitating,
which are semantically motivated and cannot be distinguished
unless the linguistic and extra-linguistic context is taken into
account.\\



%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%------------------------------------------
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% RESIDUAL
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\section{Residual}

\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf RESIDUAL} & Type &Gender&Number\\
\hline \hline
MULTILEX      &  Misc*  &&      \\
\hline
GENELEX       &          &&  \\
\hline
AlethDic &               &&  \\
\hline
NERC & letters           &&  \\
     & symbols           &&  \\
     & formulae          &&  \\
     & abbreviations     &&  \\
     & Foreign Words*    &&  \\
\hline
Leech&foreign words      & m   &s\\
     &alphabetic symbols & f   &p\\
     &acronyms &n& \\
     &formulae & &\\
     &abbreviations&&\\
     &unclassified&&\\
\hline \hline \hline \hline
EAG-L0  &\multicolumn{3}{|c||}{\bf RESIDUAL}\\
\hline
EAG-L1&foreign words &m &s\\
     &alphabetic symbols&f &p \\
     &formulae&n& \\
     &acronyms& &\\
     &toponyms& &\\
     &abbreviations&&\\
     &unclassified&&\\
\hline
EAG-L2a &     & &        \\
\hline
EAG-L2b&      &c&n  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{footnotesize}
\newpage
\subsection{Comments}
EAGLES recommends
keeping this class as small as possible and the specification
of links to other classes when they are clear.\\
Some
annotation practices prefer to treat phenomena included
here as belonging to other parts of speech (e.g. foreign words treated as
nouns having number and gender).\\

\subsubsection{Type}
MULTILEX proposes two indistinct classes Misc and None for
words for which it is unclear what category should be assigned and for
words to which no category should be assigned. It can be argued that
these two categories should be mapped onto the Residual class proposed
here.\\

In NERC Foreign Words were kept apart from the so-called
Rest Group and treated as a separate category, since the former
may behave in a different way syntactically.
\newpage
\subsection{Application to Italian}


\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type} & {\em foreign word} & polis  & FW \\
\hline
 & {\em abbreviation} & Sig. & abbr\\
\hline
 & {\em sigla} & CNR & sigla\\
\hline
 & {\em toponyms} & Milano & T \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\subsection{Application to German}

%%%%%%% BEGIN GERMAN (comment) %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% Should "Punctuation" be added as a possible type?
%
%%%%%%% END GERMAN (comment) %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

Only punctuation is included in the IMS-tagset; no tags are provided yet
for symbols, formula, foreign words etc.

\vspace{1ex}

Abbreviations are classified according to the ``full'' word form, and are
marked by an additional feature {\bf ABK}. Acronyms are generally
classified as proper names.

\subsubsection{Type}
\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type}
& {\em punctuation} & ?  & {\bf IP}NORM \\
\hline
& {\em abbreviation} & Tel. & NN:{\bf ABK}\\
&                    & dt.  & ADJA:{\bf ABK} \\
\hline
& {\em acronyms}     & USA  & NE:{\bf ABK} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{2ex}

\subsection{Application to English}

\subsubsection{Type }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Type} & {\em foreign word} & mawashi & RFW \\
 & {\em symbol} & \pounds, $|$ & RSY \\
 & {\em formula} & X/21= & RFO \\
 & {\em unclassified} & la-la-la & RUN \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsubsection{Number }

\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l | l |}
\hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline
{\bf Number} & {\em singular} & A, b & RSYs \\
 & {\em plural} & As, b's & RSYp \\
\hline
\end{tabular}

\subsection{Application to Dutch}


We have recently sent to the EAGLES group of Professor G.\ Leech the proposal of
attributing an additional value for Dutch sub Residual-Type: {\it Acronym\/}.

\subsection{Application to French (Corpus)}

The IBMF tagset codes punctuation marks as specific tags.
Indeed, they are morphological manifestations and can help predict
other tags.

The tagset distinguishes weak punctuation (tag {\bf AAAA}),
strong punctuation ({\bf YAAA}) and
sentence boundary ({\bf ZTRM}).

\subsection{Application to French (Lexicon)}
\begin{verbatim}
--------- -----------
Tag       Example
--------- -----------
X         IBM
--------- -----------
\end{verbatim}



%% RESIDUAL

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%


\subsection{Application to Greek}

\subsubsection{Foreign Word}

In the Greek Morphological Lexicon, we currently keep
foreign words apart from the rest of the elements included in EAGLES
under the general category of ``residual". This distinction
allows us to code further information on foreign words
necessitated by the morpho-syntactic system of Greek. In this
category, we include only those foreign words that have not been
adapted to the morphological system of Greek and, furthermore,
are not considered ``Greek" words. \\

However, the inclusion of foreign words under the ``Residual"
category can easily be performed, given the tag ``Fw" used for
this category. \\

Two additional features are used for foreign words: {\bf form}
and {\bf for-cat}. The first attribute is used to distinguish
between foreign words that are transliterated in the Greek
alphabet and those kept in their original Latin form, and the
second attribute is used to code the grammatical category of the
foreign word in order to facilitate further syntactic parsing of
the texts.\\



\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf Form}    & {\it translit}& Tzeikomp & Fw{\bf Tr}  \\
\hline
              & {\it original}& Jacob  &  Fw{\bf Or} \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}




\begin{tabular}{||c||l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute}& {\it value}& Gr. example& Gr. tag\\
\hline \hline
{\bf For-cat}    & {\it noun}& Tzeikomp & FwTr{\bf No}  \\
\hline
              & {\it adverb}& (ad hoc)  &  FwOr{\bf Av} \\
\hline
              & {\it verb}& cogito  & FwOr{\bf Vb}  \\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}



\subsubsection{Type}

In this section we include all other elements included in the
EAGLES Residual category. These are coded in the ILSP
Morphological Lexicon as belonging to the category ``Rest-group".
The basic feature for these elements is that of {\bf Type}.\\




\begin{tabular}{||l|l|l|l||}
\hline \hline
{\bf Attribute} & {\em values} & Examples & Tags \\
\hline \hline
{\bf Type} & {\em foreign word} & Tzeikomp  & Fw \\
\hline
 & {\em abbr} & forol. & Rg{\bf Ab}\\
\hline
 & {\em formula} & F(x) & Rg{\bf Fo}\\
\hline
 & {\em symbol} & < & Rg{\bf Sy} \\
\hline
 l-spec & {\em date} & (17/03/92) & Rg{\bf Da}\\
\hline \hline
\end{tabular}

\vspace{15mm}

No distinction is made at present between abbreviations and
acronyms, while the extra value of {\it date} is used for the
codification of dates, whether written in digits or in letters.\\




\newpage
\section{References}


Aglamissis, Y., M. Gavrilidou, P. Labropoulou, H. Papageorgiou,
S. Piperidis and C. Raptis (1994): ``The ILSP Morphological
Tagset". NERC-2 Document.\\

Bel N., M. Villegas (1993): ``Morphosyntax for Spanish", EAGLES Input
Document, Barcelona.\\

Bindi R., M. Monachini, P. Orsolini (1991): ``Italian Reference Corpus"
NERC Technical Report, ILC, Pisa.\\

Burnage G. (1990): {\it CELEX. A
guide for users\/}.\\

Dutilh-Ruitenberg T. (1994): ``A Comparative Report on Morphosyntactic
Categories in Dutch as encoded in the CELEX Dutch Lexical Databases.
Augmented with ten proposals for Dutch, EAGLES Input Document, Leiden.\\

Calzolari N., Ceccotti M.L., Roventini A. (1983): ``Documentazione sui
tre nastri contenenti il DMI", ILC Technical Report, Pisa.\\

Calzolari N., Monachini M. (Coords.) (1994): ``Commons Specifications and
Notation For Lexicon Encoding", MULTEXT WP1.6 Deliverable.\\

GENELEX Consortium (Apr 1993): ``Couche Morphologique", Version 3.0,
ASSTRIL, Gsi-Erli, IBM France, SEMA GROUP.\\

GENELEX Consortium (Sept 1993): ``Couche Syntaxique. Les Unites
Syntaxique Simple", Tome 1, Version 3.0,
ASSTRIL, Gsi-Erli, IBM France, SEMA GROUP.\\

Gsi-Erli (Jun 1993): ``Le Dictionnaire AlethDic", Gsi-Erli, Paris.\\

Guerreiro, P. (1994): ``Morphosyntactic Phenomena Encoded in a
Portuguese NLP Lexicon. Application of the EAGLES Specificications",
EAGLES input document, Lisbon.\\

Guerreiro, P. (ed.), (1994): ``Linguistic Specifications
for Portuguese Computational Lexica", Final Report of GENELEX-PT,
Eureka: EU 524.\\

Heid, U., McNaught, J. (eds.) (1991): ``Eurotra-7 Study: Feasibility
and Project Definition Study on the Reusability of Lexical and
Terminological Resources in Computerised Applications". Eurotra-7
Final Report, Stuttgart.\\

Heylen, D. (April 1994): ``Comments on a Common
tagset", EAGLES Input Document, Utrecht.\\

Lang\'{e}, J.M. (March 1994): ``Application of EAGLES morphosyntactic
guidelines to a French tagset", EAGLES Input Document, IBM, Paris.\\

Leech, G. (1992): ``Corpus Annotation Schemes", paper presented
at the Pisa Corpus Workshop (24-26 January 1992), to be published
in Literary and Linguistic Computing, OUP.\\

Leech G., A. Wilson (1993a): ``Invitation Draft", Draft EAGLES Document,
Lancaster.\\

Leech G., A. Wilson (1993b): ``Tagset Guidelines", Draft EAGLES Document,
Lancaster.\\

Leech G., A. Wilson (1994a): ``MSAL21", Draft EAGLES Document,
Lancaster.\\

Leech G., A. Wilson (1994b): ``A Morphosyntactic Tagset for English,
making use of the guidelines of the Pisa Document", EAGLES Input Document,
Lancaster.\\

Monachini (1992):  ``Core set of PoS tags for Italian",  ILC Technical
Report, Pisa.\\

Monachini M., A. \"{O}stling (1992a): ``Morphosyntactic Corpus Annotation
-- A Comparison of Different Schemes", NERC-WP8-60, Pisa.\\

Monachini M., A. \"{O}stling (1992b): ``Towards a Minimal Standard
for Morphosyntactic Corpus Annotation", NERC-WP8-61, Pisa.\\

Monachini M., N. Calzolari (1994): ``Application of
EAGLES Proposal for Morphosyntactic encoding to Italian Lexicon and
Corpus", EAGLES Input Document, ILC,
Pisa.\\

MULTILEX Consortium (Apr 1993): ``Standards for Multifunctional Lexicon",
CAP GEMINI, Philips, Univ. of Surrey, Univ. of Bochum,
Univ. of Muenster.\\

Schiller A. (1993): ``Tagsets f\"ur Deutsch", Draft EAGLES input Document,
Stuttgart.\\

% +++++ BEGIN GERMAN (add following text) +++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Schiller A. (1994): ``Guidelines f\"ur das Tagging deutscher Textcorpora
(Kleines und erweitertes Tagset)'', Univ. Stuttgart, Internal Document. \\

Schiller A., Thielen C. (forthc.): ``Ein kleines und erweitertes Tagset
f\"{u}rs Deutsche'', {\em to appear in:\/} Tagungsberichte des
Arbeitstreffens Lexikon + Text, 17./18. Februar 1994, Schlo{\ss}
Hohent\"{u}bingen, Niemeyer: Lexicographica Series Maior, T\"{u}bingen,
Spring 1995. \\

TEI AI 1W2 (June 1991): ``List of Common Morphological Feature for
Inclusion in TEI Starter Set of Grammatical-Annotation Tags".\\

Veronis J., Khouri L., Meunier C. (1994a): ``Application of the
EAGLES-L1
Proposal to French", Draft EAGLES input Document, Aix-en-Provence.\\

Veronis J., Khouri L., Meunier C. (1994): ``Proposal for Morphosyntactic
Encoding in MULTEXT", Aix-en-Provence.\\

\end{document}


